Effects of virtual reality training on occupational performance and self-efficacy of patients with stroke: a randomized controlled trial

Effect of Virtual Reality-Based Training on Upper Limb Dysfunction during Post-Stroke Rehabilitation: A Meta-Analysis Combined with Meta-Regression

BACKGROUND

Recently, there has been a surge in virtual reality (VR)-based training for upper limb (UL) rehabilitation, which has yielded mixed results. Therefore, we aimed to explore the effects of conventional therapy combined with VR-based training on UL dysfunction during post-stroke rehabilitation.

METHODS

Studies published in English before May 2023 were retrieved from PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library. We also included randomized controlled trials that compared the use of conventional therapy and VR-based training with conventional therapy alone in post-stroke rehabilitation. The meta-analysis was performed using Review Manager Software (version 5.3; The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration; Copenhagen, Denmark) and Stata/MP 17.0 (StataCorp, LLC, College Station, TX, USA). Univariate and multivariate meta-regression analyses were performed to investigate the effects of stroke duration, VR characteristics, and type of conventional therapy on VR-based training.

RESULTS

In total, 27 randomized controlled trials were included, which enrolled 1354 patients. Our results showed that conventional therapy plus VR-based training is better than conventional therapy alone in UL motor impairment recovery measured using Fugl-Meyer Upper Extremity (standardized mean difference [SMD] = 0.32, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.07-0.57, Z = 2.52, p = 0.01). Meta-regression showed that stroke duration had independent effects on Fugl-Meyer Upper Extremity scores of VR-based training in rehabilitation (p = 0.041). Furthermore, in subgroup analysis based on stroke duration, stroke duration >6 months was statistically significant (SMD = 0.20, 95% CI: 0.01-0.39, Z = 2.06, p = 0.04). No relevant publication bias (p = 0.1303), and no significant difference in activity limitation assessed using the Box-Block Test (mean difference [MD] = 2.79, 95% CI: -0.63-6.20, Z = 1.60, p = 0.11) was observed. Regarding the functional independence measured using the Functional Independence Measure scale, studies presented no significant difference between the experimental and control groups (MD = 1.15, 95% CI: -1.84-4.14, Z = 0.76, p = 0.45).

CONCLUSIONS

Conventional therapy plus VR-based training is superior to conventional therapy alone in promoting the recovery of UL motor function after stroke. Therefore, VR-based training may be a potential option for improving UL motor function. The study was registered on PROSPERO (https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/), registration number: CRD42023472709.

Gamified devices for stroke rehabilitation: A systematic review

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Rehabilitation after stroke is essential to minimize permanent disability. Gamification, the integration of game elements into non-game environments, has emerged as a promising strategy for increasing motivation and rehabilitation effectiveness. This article systematically reviews the gamified devices used in stroke rehabilitation and evaluates their impact on emotional, social, and personal effects on patients, providing a comprehensive view of gamified rehabilitation.

METHODS

A comprehensive search using the PRISMA 2020 guidelines was conducted using the IEEE Xplore, PubMed, Springer Link, APA PsycInfo, and ScienceDirect databases. Empirical studies published between January 2019 and December 2023 that quantified the effects of gamification in terms of usability, motivation, engagement, and other qualitative patient responses were selected.

RESULTS

In total, 169 studies involving 6404 patients were included. Gamified devices are categorized into four types: robotic/motorized, non-motorized, virtual reality, and neuromuscular electrical stimulation. The results showed that gamified devices not only improved motor and cognitive function but also had a significant positive impact on patients' emotional, social and personal levels. Most studies have reported high levels of patient satisfaction and motivation, highlighting the effectiveness of gamification in stroke rehabilitation.

CONCLUSIONS

Gamification in stroke rehabilitation offers significant benefits beyond motor and cognitive recovery by improving patients' emotional and social well-being. This systematic review provides a comprehensive overview of the most effective gamified technologies and highlights the need for future multidisciplinary research to optimize the design and implementation of gamified solutions in stroke rehabilitation.

Effects of virtual reality-based cognitive interventions on cognitive function and activity of daily living among stroke patients: Systematic review and meta-analysis

AIMS

To examine the effects of virtual reality-based cognitive interventions on cognitive function and activities of daily living among stroke patients, and to identify the optimal design for such intervention.

DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

DATA SOURCES

Medline, EMBASE, Cochrane, CINANL, JBI-EBP and Web of Science from inception to October 2023.

METHODS

Methodological quality was assessed by Risk of Bias Tool. Meta-analyses were assessed by Review Manager 5.4. Subgroup analyses were conducted to explore the influence of study design. Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach was adopted to assess the certainty of evidence.

RESULTS

Twenty-five randomized controlled trials (1178 participants) were included. Virtual reality-based cognitive interventions demonstrated moderate-to-large effects in improving global cognitive function (SMD = 0.43; 95% CI [0.01, 0.85]), executive function (SMD = 0.84; 95% CI [0.25, 1.43]) and memory (SMD = 0.65; 95% CI [0.15, 1.16]) compared to control treatments. No significant effects were found on language, visuospatial ability and activities of daily living. Subgroup analyses indicated one-on-one coaching, individualized design and dynamic difficulty adjustment, and interventions lasting ≥ 6 weeks had particularly enhanced effects, especially for executive function.

CONCLUSIONS

Virtual reality-based cognitive interventions improve global cognitive function, executive function and memory among stroke patients.

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PATIENT CARE

This review underscores the broad cognitive advantages offered by virtual technology, suggesting its potential integration into standard stroke rehabilitation protocols for enhanced cognitive recovery.

IMPACT

The study identifies key factors in virtual technology interventions that effectively improve cognitive function among stroke patients, offering healthcare providers a framework for leveraging such technology to optimize cognitive outcomes in stroke rehabilitation.

REPORTING METHOD

PRISMA 2020 statement.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42022342668.

Virtual Reality Intervention and Its Impact on Upper Extremity Function in the Stroke Population: A Scoping Review

The aim of this scoping review was to examine virtual reality (VR) interventions used within rehabilitation and their effect on the functional outcomes of individuals with stroke. Specifically, this study sought to determine the impact of VR on the upper extremity (UE) use of participants as it relates to body function, occupational participation, and overall UE function (UEfxn). Twenty-six articles were selected for inclusion and results were extracted to determine common themes of outcomes among the effects of VR intervention (VRI). Thematic analysis included details about the VRIs used, as well as the change in UE outcomes post-VRI. Overall, positive change in UEfxn was found across many of the studies, indicating that VR technologies may be an effective intervention technique for individuals, poststroke. Findings of this review encourage clinicians to conduct further research regarding VR technology for UE rehabilitation poststroke.

Exploring the efficacy of virtual reality-based rehabilitation in stroke: a narrative review of current evidence

BACKGROUND

Stroke rehabilitation presents a complex challenge, necessitating innovative approaches to optimise functional recovery. Virtual Reality-Based Rehabilitation (VRBR) has emerged as a promising intervention that capitalises on immersive technology to engage stroke survivors in their recovery journey. This review aims to examine the efficacy of VRBR in stroke rehabilitation, focusing on its advantages and challenges.

METHODS

A comprehensive search of relevant literature was conducted to gather evidence on the efficacy of VRBR in stroke survivors. Studies that investigated the impact of VRBR on patient engagement, functional recovery, and overall rehabilitation outcomes were included. The review also assessed the ability of VRBR to simulate real-life scenarios and facilitate essential daily activities for stroke survivors.

RESULTS

The review highlights that VRBR offers a unique immersive experience that enhances patient engagement and motivation during rehabilitation. The immersive nature of VRBR fosters a sense of presence, which can positively impact treatment adherence and outcomes. Moreover, VRBR's capacity to replicate real-world scenarios provides stroke survivors with opportunities to practice vital daily activities, promoting functional independence. In contrast, conventional rehabilitation methods lack the same level of engagement and real-world simulation.

CONCLUSION

VRBR holds promise as an efficacious intervention in stroke rehabilitation. Its immersive nature enhances patient engagement and motivation, potentially leading to better treatment adherence and outcomes. The ability of VRBR to simulate real-life scenarios offers a unique platform. However, challenges such as cost, equipment, patient suitability, data privacy, and acceptance must be addressed for successful integration into stroke rehabilitation practice.

Cognitive Task Domain Influences Cognitive-Motor Interference during Large-Magnitude Treadmill Stance Perturbations

Reactive balance is postulated to be attentionally demanding, although it has been underexamined in dual-tasking (DT) conditions. Further, DT studies have mainly included only one cognitive task, leaving it unknown how different cognitive domains contribute to reactive balance. This study examined how DT affected reactive responses to large-magnitude perturbations and compared cognitive-motor interference (CMI) between cognitive tasks. A total of 20 young adults aged 18-35 (40% female; 25.6 ± 3.8 y) were exposed to treadmill support surface perturbations alone (single-task (ST)) and while completing four cognitive tasks: Target, Track, Auditory Clock Test (ACT), Letter Number Sequencing (LNS). Three perturbations were delivered over 30 s in each trial. Cognitive tasks were also performed while seated and standing (ST). Compared to ST, post-perturbation MOS was lower when performing Track, and cognitive performance was reduced on the Target task during DT (p < 0.05). There was a larger decline in overall (cognitive + motor) performance from ST for both of the visuomotor tasks compared to the ACT and LNS (p < 0.05). The highest CMI was observed for visuomotor tasks; real-life visuomotor tasks could increase fall risk during daily living, especially for individuals with difficulty attending to more than one task.

Effects of Virtual Reality-Based Exercise on Balance in Patients With Stroke: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study is to quantify the effects of virtual reality-based exercise on balance after stroke.

DESIGN

The PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature, and Web of Science databases were searched until December 31, 2021. Independent investigators abstracted data, assessed the quality of the evidence, and rated the certainty of the evidence. The intergroup differences were determined by calculating mean difference and 95% confidence interval by RevMan 5.3 software.

RESULTS

Fourteen randomized controlled trials involving 423 stroke patients were included. Patients who received virtual reality-based exercise illustrated marked improvements in the Berg Balance Scale (mean difference, 1.35; 95% confidence interval, 0.58 to 1.86; P < 0.00001; I2 = 44%), Timed Up and Go test (mean difference, -0.81; 95% confidence interval, -1.18 to -0.44; P < 0.0001; I2 = 0%), Functional Reach Test (mean difference, 3.06; 95% confidence interval, 1.31-4.80; P = 0.0006; I2 = 0%), 10-Meters Walking Test (mean difference, -1.53; 95% confidence interval, -2.92 to -0.13; P = 0.03; I2 = 33%), and Modified Barthel Index (mean difference, 5.26; 95% confidence interval, 1.70 to 8.82; P = 0.004; I2 = 0%) compared with the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Existing low-evidence analyses showed that virtual reality-based exercise could effectively and safely improve balance in chronic stroke. Longer-term virtual reality-based exercise was more effective on functional ability of stroke.

Bringing High-Dose Neurorestorative Behavioral Training Into the Acute Stroke Unit

ABSTRACT

Stroke remains common and is a leading cause of adult disability. While there have been enormous system changes for the diagnosis and delivery of hyperacute stroke treatments at comprehensive stroke centers, few advances have been made in those same centers for treatments focused on behavioral recovery and brain repair. Specifically, during the early hospital period, there is a paucity of approaches available for reduction of impairment beyond what is expected from spontaneous biological recovery. Thus, patients in the early stroke recovery period are not receiving the kind of training needed, at the requisite intensity and dose, to exploit a potential critical period of heightened brain plasticity that could maximize true recovery instead of just compensation. Here, we describe an ongoing pilot program to reconfigure the acute stroke unit experience to allow for a new emphasis on brain repair. More specifically, we have introduced a novel room-based video-gaming intervention; restorative neuroanimation, into the acute stroke hospital setting. This new intervention provides the opportunity for an extra hour(s) of high-intensity neurorestorative behavioral treatment that is complementary to conventional rehabilitation. To accomplish this, system redesign was required to insert this new treatment into the patient day, to properly stratify patients behaviorally and physiologically for the treatment, to optimize the digital therapeutic approach itself, and to maintain the impairment reduction after discharge.

Additional therapy promotes a continued pattern of improvement in upper-limb function and independence post-stroke

BACKGROUND

Upper-limb motor impairment after stroke is common and disabling. Growing evidence suggests that rehabilitation is effective in the chronic period. However, there is limited knowledge on the effects of ongoing targeted rehabilitation programs on patient outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated the effects of delivering two programs of dose-matched evidence-based upper-limb rehabilitation to community-dwelling post-acute stroke patients with low, moderate and high motor-function.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

12 patients (2 female) aged 50.5±18.2 years and 13.8±10.8 months post-stroke completed 2-weeks of modified-Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy followed by 2-weeks of Wii-based Movement Therapy after a mean interval of 9.6±1.1 months (range 6-19months). Function was assessed at 6 time points (i.e. before and after each therapy program and 6-month follow-up after each program). Primary outcome measures were the Wolf Motor Function Test timed-tasks (WMFT-tt), upper-limb Fugl-Meyer Assessment (F-M) and the Motor Activity Log Quality of Movement Scale (MALQOM). Improvement and maintenance was analyzed using Paired T-Tests and Wilcoxon Signed Rank Tests.

RESULTS

Upper-limb function significantly improved on all primary outcome measures with the first therapy program (WMFT-tt p=0.008, F-M p=0.007 and MALQOM p<0.0001). All scores continued to improve with the second therapy program with significant improvements in the F-M (p=0.048) and the MALQOM (p=0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

All patients showed a pattern of continued improvement in upper-limb motor-function and independence in activities of daily living. These improvements demonstrate the benefit of ongoing post-stroke rehabilitation for community-dwelling stroke survivors for individuals of varying baseline functional status.

Effects of Immersive Virtual Therapy as a Method Supporting Recovery of Depressive Symptoms in Post-Stroke Rehabilitation: Randomized Controlled Trial

PURPOSE

Depressive symptoms constitute an important group of mental problems that alter the course of post-stroke rehabilitation by reducing quality of life, physical activity, social functioning, and interpersonal relationships. Although several studies have shown the efficacy of virtual reality (VR) in the motor treatment of poststroke patients, there is a lack of studies that would also evaluate the impact of VR on psychological aspects. Thus, we investigated the effectiveness of immersive VR therapy on both functional activity and depressive symptoms in stroke survivors.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We conducted a single blind, randomized controlled trial comparing VR therapy with Schultz's Autogenic Training (SAT). Patients randomized to the VR group received treatment in an immersive VR therapeutic garden with elements of psychotherapy and physical activity of the upper extremities, whereas patients in the control group received SAT. Additionally, patients in both groups received standard neurological rehabilitation. The full research cycle lasted six weeks. We used Geriatric Depression Scale, Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale, Acceptance of Illness Scale, Visual Analogue Scale of pain, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, Barthel Index, Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale and Rivermead Motor Assessment for outcome assessment. This trial was registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03830372).

RESULTS

We assessed 60 patients and randomly assigned to the VR or control group. The VR group showed a significant reduction in depressive symptoms (ηp² = 0.13, p < 0.01) compared to SAT. The applied VR therapy significantly increased the sense of self-efficacy and the level of acceptance of the illness; however, this effect was similar to that obtained with the standard intervention. We did not observe statistically significant changes in the functional parameters of post-stroke patients.

CONCLUSION

The use of VR therapy combined with neurological rehabilitation had a positive effect on improving mood and reducing depressive symptoms in post-stroke patients.

Superior treatment efficacy of neuromodulation rehabilitation for upper limb recovery after stroke: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

This study aims to explore the treatment efficacy of different motor rehabilitation interventions for upper limb impairment recovery.

RESEARCH DESIGN & METHODS

Publications were searched in PubMed and Embase. 4 grouped motor rehabilitation treatments (training, technological intervention, pharmacological intervention, and neuromodulation) were compared. The change of the Fugl-Meyer Assessment Scale for Upper Extremity (FMA-UE) was applied to assess upper limb function after stroke.

RESULTS

56 studies including 5292 patients were identified. A significant difference was found among the 4 groups (P = 0.02). Neuromodulation interventions had the best treatment efficacy among the 4 types of interventions (P < 0.01). Among neuromodulation interventions, acupuncture, electric, or magnetic intervention all had therapeutic efficacy for stroke upper limb recovery, without significant subgroup difference (P = 0.34). Stroke patients with mild upper limb impairment might not benefit from motor rehabilitation (P = 0.14).

CONCLUSION

Neuromodulation interventions might have the best therapeutic efficacy among motor rehabilitation treatments for upper limb impairment after stroke. It is a potential treatment direction for upper limb recovery among stroke patients. However, since a large proportion of the original studies are low to very low-quality evidence, large-scale RCTs should be conducted in the future to validate current findings and assess treatment effects based on patient characteristics.

Influence of science education on mental health of adolescents based on virtual reality

This work is developed to explore the form of mental health education, strengthen scientific educational ideas, and improve the effect of psychological therapy. Virtual reality (VR) technology is innovatively applied in adolescent mental health treatment and education. Based on this, the mental health treatment and system design based on virtual reality technology are discussed, and the feasibility of applying VR technology to adolescent mental health education is explored. Second, the research concept of adolescent mental health is discussed. Based on the VR platform setup, questionnaire survey is implemented to analyze the factors influencing the mental health of primary and secondary school students in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province (the permission of the adolescent guardian is obtained during the interview), and five factors are obtained. Based on this, the adolescent mental health treatment system based on VR is designed, and the effectiveness of the system is tested and evaluated. The results show that the integrated delay of the VR equipment used is 29 ms, which can effectively provide service. There are significant differences in mental health status among adolescents of different genders, different ages, only children and non-only children, parents’ accompaniment during growing up, and urban and rural adolescents. Finally, after 3 months of psychological treatment, the mental health score of the experimental group of teenagers is 50–55 points. However, the mental health scores of the control group remain at 56–65 points, indicating that the mental health treatment system designed in this work can effectively help the adolescents to improve their mental health, thus proving the effectiveness of the system. To sum up, this work provides scientific reference for adolescent mental health education in schools. Psychological treatment system can help teenagers improve their psychological problems and promote the development of mental health education.

Investigating the effect of self-management program on stroke's patients' self-efficacy

Background and aim

Stroke patients face various challenges that affect their self-efficacy. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of a self-management program on the self-efficacy of patients with Stroke.

Methods and materials

This study is a clinical trial, in which 72 patients with stroke participated in this study. They were selected based on the convenience sampling method and assigned to either intervention or control group (36 patients in each group) randomly. The intervention group received 5A based self-management program for 6 weeks (in-person and off-site) and the control group received only routine care includes stroke training booklets and post-discharge care training by the ward nurse. Data were collected through demographic and jones self-efficacy questionnaires, before, immediately after, and 3 months after interventions in both groups and were analyzed with descriptive and analytical statistics using SPSS software (with independent t-test, Chi-square, Fisher and analysis of variance with repeated measures with a significance level of 0.05).

Results

Before interventions, the two study groups had no statistically significant difference regarding demographic variables and the mean score of self-efficacy. Immediately and 3 months after interventions, the mean score and mean changes of self-efficacy score in the intervention group were significantly greater than in the control group(p < 0.001).

Conclusion

The results of the present study show the appropriate effect of self-management program on self-efficacy of stroke patients. These results can be used by different members of healthcare teams to improve patients’ self-efficacy.

Trial registration

This study is registered by Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials with decree code: IRCT20190712044181N2 (registration date: 05-11-2019).

Effectiveness of the Functional and Cognitive Occupational Therapy (FaCoT) Intervention for Improving Daily Functioning and Participation of Individuals with Mild Stroke: A Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Mild stroke can cause subtle cognitive-behavioral symptoms, which although might be hidden, can restrict community reintegration and participation. Cognitive rehabilitation programs exist for stroke but not specifically for mild stroke and the research evidence varies. The Functional and Cognitive Occupational Therapy (FaCoT) intervention was developed specifically for this population.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the effectiveness of FaCoT intervention for improving daily functioning and participation compared with standard care.

METHOD

A single blind randomized controlled trial with assessments pre (T1), post (T2) and 3-month follow-up (T3). Individuals in the FaCoT group received 10 weekly sessions practicing cognitive and behavioral strategies. The Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM) was the primary outcome measure, IADL-questionnaire, Reintegration to Normal Living questionnaire (RNL) were secondary measures.

RESULTS

In total, 66 community-dwelling individuals with mild stroke were randomly allocated to FaCoT (n = 33, mean (SD) age 64.6 (8.2), 33% women), or control group (n = 33, mean (SD) age 64.4 (10.8), 45% women). Time X Group interaction effects were found for the COPM performance (F(1.4,90.3) = 11.75, p < 0.000) and satisfaction (F(1.5,96.8) = 15.70, p < 0.000), with large effect size values. Significant between-group effects were found for RNL (F = 10.02, p < 0.002, ɳP2 = 0.13). Most participants in FaCoT achieved a clinically important difference in COPM between T1-T2, T1-T3, and in RNL between T1 to T3 compared with the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

FaCoT intervention is effective to improve daily functioning, participation and satisfaction of individuals with mild stroke compared with standard care, therefore FaCoT should be implemented in community rehabilitation settings.

VIRTUAL REALITY TRAINING THROUGH NINTENDO WII GAMES IN STROKE PATIENTS: A RANDOMISED CLINICAL TRIAL (Preprint)

Background

Stroke is a leading cause of disability. It is difficult to devise an optimal rehabilitation plan once stroke survivors are back home. Conventional rehabilitative therapies are extensively used in patients with stroke to recover motor functioning and disability, but these are arduous and expensive. Virtual reality (VR) video games inspire patients to get involved in their therapeutic exercise routine in a fun way. VR in the form of games provides a fruitful, secure, and challenging learning environment for motor control and neural plasticity development in rehabilitation. The effects of upper limb sensorimotor functioning and balance are the main focus of this trial.

Objective

The aim of this study is to compare the effects of VR training and routine physical therapy on balance and upper extremity sensorimotor function in patients with stroke.

Methods

It was a single assessor-blinded randomized clinical trial. A total of 74 participants with their first chronic stroke were included and rehabilitated in a clinical setting. The lottery method was used to randomly assign patients to either the VR group (n=37) or the routine physical therapy group (n=37). The VR group received a 1-hour session of VR training for 3 weekdays over 6 weeks, and the routine physical therapy group received different stretching and strengthening exercises. The outcome measuring tools were the Berg Balance Scale for balance and the Fugl-Meyer Assessment (upper extremity) scale for sensorimotor, joint pain, and range assessment. The assessment was done at the start of treatment and after the 6 weeks of intervention. Data analysis was done using SPSS 22.

Results

The trial was completed by 68 patients. A significant difference between the two groups was found in the Berg Balance Scale score (P<.001), Fugl-Meyer Assessment for motor function (P=.03), and Fugl-Meyer Assessment for joint pain and joint range (P<.001); however, no significant difference (P=.19) in the Fugl-Meyer Assessment for upper extremity sensation was noted.

Conclusions

VR training is helpful for improving balance and function of the upper extremities in the routine life of patients with stroke; although, it was not found to be better than conventional training in improving upper limb sensation. VR training can be a better option in a rehabilitation plan designed to increase functional capability.

Trial Registration

Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials RCT20190715044216N1; https://www.irct.ir/user/trial/40898/view

Leap Motion Controller Video Game-Based Therapy for Upper Extremity Motor Recovery in Patients with Central Nervous System Diseases. A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

Leap Motion Controller (LMC) is a virtual reality device that can be used in the rehabilitation of central nervous system disease (CNSD) motor impairments. This review aimed to evaluate the effect of video game-based therapy with LMC on the recovery of upper extremity (UE) motor function in patients with CNSD. A systematic review with meta-analysis was performed in PubMed Medline, Web of Science, Scopus, CINAHL, and PEDro. We included five randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of patients with CNSD in which LMC was used as experimental therapy compared to conventional therapy (CT) to restore UE motor function. Pooled effects were estimated with Cohen's standardized mean difference (SMD) and its 95% confidence interval (95% CI). At first, in patients with stroke, LMC showed low-quality evidence of a large effect on UE mobility (SMD = 0.96; 95% CI = 0.47, 1.45). In combination with CT, LMC showed very low-quality evidence of a large effect on UE mobility (SMD = 1.34; 95% CI = 0.49, 2.19) and the UE mobility-oriented task (SMD = 1.26; 95% CI = 0.42, 2.10). Second, in patients with non-acute CNSD (cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson's disease), LMC showed low-quality evidence of a medium effect on grip strength (GS) (SMD = 0.47; 95% CI = 0.03, 0.90) and on gross motor dexterity (GMD) (SMD = 0.73; 95% CI = 0.28, 1.17) in the most affected UE. In combination with CT, LMC showed very low-quality evidence of a high effect in the most affected UE on GMD (SMD = 0.80; 95% CI = 0.06, 1.15) and fine motor dexterity (FMD) (SMD = 0.82; 95% CI = 0.07, 1.57). In stroke, LMC improved UE mobility and UE mobility-oriented tasks, and in non-acute CNSD, LMC improved the GS and GMD of the most affected UE and FMD when it was used with CT.