Narcolepsy and emotional experience: a review of the literature

Navigating narcolepsy: exploring coping strategies and their association with quality of life in patients with narcolepsy type 1

Narcolepsy type 1 (NT1) is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by symptoms such as excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden sleep episodes, disrupted nocturnal sleep, cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic hallucinations, which significantly impact the overall well-being and quality of life of individuals. While psychological factors have gained attention, there is limited research on the coping strategies employed by patients with NT1 and their association with quality of life. This study aimed to compare coping strategies in patients with NT1 and controls, as well as assess the relationship between coping strategies and quality of life in patients with NT1. A total of 122 individuals diagnosed with NT1 and 138 controls were enrolled in this cross-sectional study. Participants completed questionnaires assessing coping strategies and health-related quality of life. A Mann-Whitney U test was conducted to compare the use of different coping strategies by patients with NT1 and controls. Spearman's rho correlation was performed to examine the association between coping strategies and quality of life in the NT1 group. Results showed that patients with NT1 exhibited differences in the use of coping strategies compared to controls. They reported lower use of active coping, planning, instrumental, and emotional social support, and higher use of behavioral and mental disengagement. Denial and behavioral disengagement were significantly and negatively associated with quality of life. Identifying coping strategies and their association with quality of life may aid in the development of tailored interventions aimed at improving the adoption of effective coping strategies and reducing the use of maladaptive coping strategies.

Exploring exercise, physical wellbeing and the role of physiotherapy: perspectives from people with narcolepsy

Narcolepsy is associated with reduced quality of life and physical performance. The study aimed to explore the attitudes of people with Type 1 narcolepsy towards exercise and physical activity, their physical wellbeing, and the potential role of physiotherapy. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 22 people with narcolepsy attending a dedicated outpatient narcolepsy clinic located in Dublin, Ireland. Transcripts were iteratively coded; a thematic analysis was undertaken, and key themes were identified. Four themes were identified: 'Barriers and Facilitators to Exercising', 'Social Concerns', 'Health Concerns' and 'Suggestions for the Role of Physiotherapy'. Future research should explore the potential role of exercise to help manage narcolepsy-related symptoms in this population.

Challenges in the Management of Narcolepsy in a Resource Limited Setting: A Case Report

The management of Narcolepsy, from the initial presentation to the long-term management and follow-up, remains a challenging endeavor, especially in developing climes. Worldwide, it has been recognized as a medical condition that is frequently associated with initial misdiagnoses, and delays in definitive management, further highlighted, in resource-limited settings like Nigeria where issues are further compounded by social, cultural, and political factors. In this report, we aim to shed some light on the peculiar challenges encountered by clinicians in Nigeria, and in other similar settings, in the process of diagnosis and management of narcolepsy. We present a case of a 17-year-old male teenager with Narcolepsy Type 1 (NT1) who had been previously managed as a case of Juvenile Absence Epilepsy in various centers prior to presentation at our facility. The symptoms began two years prior to presentation at our outpatient clinic, and they were excessive daytime sleepiness, cataplexy, and sleep paralysis. The symptoms were corroborated by laboratory parameters - reduced mean sleep latency (conducted in an improvised sleep laboratory), and a low cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) hypocretin level. The patient was initially placed on Modafinil for excessive daytime sleepiness and a trial of Fluoxetine for the Cataplexy. However, due to the scarcity of Modafinil, behavioral modifications - scheduled sleep naps and sleep hygiene - were eventually employed. Narcolepsy is a debilitating illness, and consequently, the far-reaching effects of these challenges must be understood. It is important that concerted efforts be made towards improving the overall quality of care received by patients from the early identification to the treatment of narcolepsy in the Nigerian healthcare system.

Characterization of the Increase in Narcolepsy following the 2009 H1N1 Pandemic in Sweden

(1) Background: In the context of the H1N1 pandemic and the Pandemrix vaccination campaign, an increased number of narcolepsy cases were noted in several countries. In Sweden, this phenomenon was attributed to the effect of the Pandemrix vaccination in the first place. Studies from China indicated that narcolepsy could occur as a consequence of the H1N1 infection itself. We performed an analysis of the increase, with a specific interest in age and sex distribution. We also aimed to validate the origin of the excess cases, post hoc. (2) Methods: Data for narcolepsy patients (ICD code G 47.4, both type 1 and type 2) distributed by sex and age at 5-year intervals, annually between 2005 and 2017, were retrieved from the National Patient Register. Information on the total population was collected from the Swedish Population Register. (3) Results: The number of narcolepsy cases increased markedly from 2009 to 2014 compared to the period before 2009. A particular increase in 2011 among children and teenagers was observed. The sex ratio did not change significantly during the study period. (4) Conclusions: Our results support an association between the increased prevalence of narcolepsy cases and Pandemrix vaccination, but the effect of the virus itself cannot be ruled out as a contributing factor.

The effectiveness of lucid dreaming therapy in patients with nightmares: A systematic review

OBJECTIVES

Nightmares can be defined as "an unpleasant dream with anxiety and oppression". They represent a symptom possibly leading to serious psychiatric and physical consequences. It occurs to 2% to 8% of the general population. Lucid dreaming therapy (LDT) is an interesting upcoming psychotherapy for the treatment of nightmares. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of LDT in the treatment of nightmares in adults and children.

METHODS

We performed a systematic review of the literature, based on the Cochrane organisation's methodology. We explored the PubMed, Cochrane library, PsycINFO via Ovid and Embase databases and clinical trial registries (CTR), namely clinicaltrials.gov, EU clinical trials and the WHO clinical trials registry platform.

RESULTS

Four randomized controlled trials (RCT), 2 case series and 5 case reports were included. Most of the included studies found LDT effective in reducing nightmare frequency among adults with chronic and recurring nightmares. We did not identify any reports in children.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite a limited internal validity for the included studies, these first results are encouraging. Nonetheless, larger and more rigorous studies would allow to better assess the utility of LDT for nightmares.

Amygdala neurocircuitry at the interface between emotional regulation and narcolepsy with cataplexy

Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder characterized by chronic and excessive daytime sleepiness, and sudden intrusion of sleep during wakefulness that can fall into two categories: type 1 and type 2. Type 1 narcolepsy in humans is widely believed to be caused as a result of loss of neurons in the brain that contain the key arousal neuropeptide Orexin (Orx; also known as Hypocretin). Patients with type 1 narcolepsy often also present with cataplexy, the sudden paralysis of voluntary muscles which is triggered by strong emotions (e.g., laughter in humans, social play in dogs, and chocolate in rodents). The amygdala is a crucial emotion-processing center of the brain; however, little is known about the role of the amygdala in sleep/wake and narcolepsy with cataplexy. A collection of reports across human functional neuroimaging analyses and rodent behavioral paradigms points toward the amygdala as a critical node linking emotional regulation to cataplexy. Here, we review the existing evidence suggesting a functional role for the amygdala network in narcolepsy, and build upon a framework that describes relevant contributions from the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), basolateral amygdala (BLA), and the extended amygdala, including the bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BNST). We propose that detailed examinations of amygdala neurocircuitry controlling transitions between emotional arousal states may substantially advance progress in understanding the etiology of narcolepsy with cataplexy, leading to enhanced treatment opportunities.

The hypnagogic state: A brief update

The hypnagogic state refers to a transitional stage between wakefulness and sleep, in which sensory perceptions can be experienced. In this review, we compile and discuss the recent scientific literature on hypnagogia research regarding the future directions proposed by Schacter (1976; Psychological Bulletin, 83, 452). After a short introduction discussing the terminology used in hypnagogia research and the differentiation of hypnagogic states with other related phenomena, we review the reported prevalence of hypnagogic states. Then, we evaluate the six future directions suggested by Schacter and we propose three further future directions. First, a better understanding of the emotional quality of hypnagogic states is needed. Second, a better understanding of why hypnagogic states occur so frequently in the visual and kinaesthetic modalities is needed. Lastly, a better understanding of the purpose of hypnagogic states is needed. In conclusion, research has made great progress in recent years, and we are one step closer to demystifying the hypnagogic state.

Narcolepsy and emotions: Is there a place for a theory of mind approach?

Narcolepsy type 1 is a central disorder of hypersomnolence characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, rapid eye movement sleep-related manifestations, and cataplexy. In the current literature there is general agreement regarding neural correlates of Narcolepsy type 1 that appear to be related to anatomical and functional abnormalities in the hypothalamic region. In the last two decades, researchers shed light on the neurological bases of cataplexy by focusing on the neurobiological correlates of emotions. Although the results of these studies differ, they all point to an impairment in the amygdala and hypothalamus functions that are known to be involved in emotional processing, suggesting an impairment in this domain in narcoleptic patients. Indeed, despite heterogeneous results, several studies showed that narcoleptic patients differed from healthy controls in processing emotional stimuli. From a behavioral point of view, these findings suggest that alterations in emotional processing may be driven, at least in part, by compensatory strategies to avoid or reduce the frequency of cataplexy attacks. Surprisingly, the only study exploring in NT1 the behavioural performances in emotional facial recognition found no differences between NT1 adults and controls. We hypothesize that narcoleptic patients may present an alteration in a more complex socio-cognitive ability that is related to emotional processing, namely Theory of Mind. This review aims to investigate the literature supporting this hypothesis and to propose possible future developments on this topic.

Alexithymia, impulsiveness, emotion, and eating dyscontrol: similarities and differences between narcolepsy type 1 and type 2

Non-sleep symptoms, as depression, anxiety and overweight, are often encountered in narcoleptic patients. The purposes of this study are to evaluate mood, impulsiveness, emotion, alexithymia, and eating behavior in patients with narcolepsy type 1 (NT1) and narcolepsy type 2 (NT2) compared to healthy controls and to investigate possible correlations between clinical-demographic data, polysomnographic parameters, and subjective questionnaires. Consecutive patients affected by NT1 and NT2 underwent to Patient Health Questionnaire-9, Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 Scale, Barratt Impulsivity Scale-11, Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, Toronto Alexithymia Scale, and Eating Disorder Evaluation Questionnaire. Daytime sleepiness was assessed using Epworth sleepiness score. Data were compared with controls. Fourteen NT1, 10 NT2, and 24 healthy subjects were enrolled. Toronto Alexithymia Scale total score was significantly higher in NT1 than NT2. Compared to controls, NT1 patients exhibited significantly higher scores at Patient Health Questionnaire-9 and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. A positive correlation between hypnagogic hallucinations and Difficulties in emotion regulation was found. NT1 and NT2 share several psycho-emotional aspects, but whereas NT1 patients exhibit more depressive mood and emotion dysregulation compared to controls, alexithymic symptoms are more prominent in NT1 than NT2. Hypnagogic hallucinations, emotion dysregulation, and alexithymia appear to be correlated, supporting the hypothesis of mutual interaction of the above areas in narcolepsy.

Abnormal Regional Spontaneous Neural Activity and Functional Connectivity in Unmedicated Patients with Narcolepsy Type 1: A Resting-State fMRI Study

BACKGROUND

Previous Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have mainly focused on cerebral functional alteration in processing different emotional stimuli in patients with narcolepsy type 1 (NT1), but were short of exploration of characteristic brain activity and its remote interaction patterns. This study aimed to investigate the spontaneous blood oxygen fluctuations at rest and to elucidate the neural mechanisms underlying neuropsychiatric behavior.

METHOD

A total of 18 unmedicated patients with NT1 and matched healthy individuals were recruited in a resting-state fMRI study. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data were first analyzed using fractional low-frequency amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (fALFF) to detect changes in local neural activity, and regions with group differences were taken as regions of interest (ROIs). Secondly, functional connectivity (FC) analysis was used to explore altered connectivity between ROIs and other areas. Lastly, the relationship between functional brain activity and neuropsychiatric behaviors was analyzed with correlation analysis.

RESULTS

fALFF analysis revealed enhanced neural activity in bilateral fusiform gyrus (FFG), right precentral gyrus, and left postcentral gyrus (PoCG) in the NT1 group. The patients indicated reduced activity in the bilateral temporal pole middle temporal gyrus (TPOmid), left caudate nucleus (CAU), left parahippocampus, left precuneus (PCUN), right amygdala, and right anterior cingulate and paracingulate gyri. ESS score was negatively correlated with fALFF in the right FFG. The NT1 group revealed decreased connectivity between left TPOmid and right PoCG, the bilateral middle frontal gyrus, left superior frontal gyrus, medial, and right supramarginal gyrus. Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) was negatively correlated with FC of the left TPOmid with left putamen (PUT) in NT1. Compared with healthy controls (HCs), enhanced FC of the left CAU with right FFG was positively associated with MSLT-SOREMPs in patients. Furthermore, increased FC of the left PCUN with right PoCG was positively correlated with SDS score.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that multiple functional activities related to the processing of emotional regulation and sensory information processing were abnormal, and some were related to clinical characteristics. fALFF in the left postcentral or right precentral gyrus may be used as a biomarker of narcolepsy, whereas fALFF in the right fusiform and the FC strength of the left temporal pole middle temporal gyrus with the putamen may be clinical indicators to assess the drowsiness severity of narcolepsy.

Exploring Addictive Online Behaviors in Patients with Narcolepsy Type 1

BACKGROUND

Narcolepsy type 1 (NT1) is a rare neurological sleep disorder caused by the loss of neurons that produce hypocretin-a peptide that plays a crucial role in addictive behaviors. We aimed to compare, for the first time, levels of problematic online gaming, problematic social media use, and compulsive Internet use between NT1 patients and healthy controls (HC), and to evaluate the association between anxiety, depression, and emotion dysregulation with addictive online behaviors in NT1 patients.

METHODS

A total of 43 patients with NT1 and 86 sex- and age-matched HC participated in an online cross-sectional survey.

RESULTS

NT1 patients did not differ from HC in terms of problematic social media use and compulsive Internet use but displayed higher levels of problematic online gaming compared to HC. Higher levels of emotion dysregulation were significantly associated with higher levels of problematic social media use and compulsive Internet use, while none of the tested factors were associated with problematic online gaming.

CONCLUSION

NT1 patients and HC had similar levels of problematic social media use and compulsive Internet use, but NT1 patients showed higher levels of problematic online gaming. Emotion dysregulation might be an intervention target for reducing compulsive Internet use and problematic social media use.

Plasticity of the hypocretinergic/orexinergic system after a chronic treatment with suvorexant in rats. Role of the hypocretinergic/orexinergic receptor 1 as an autoreceptor

The hypothalamic hypocretinergic/orexinergic (Hcrt/Ox) system is involved in many physiological and pathophysiological processes. Malfunction of Hcrt/Ox transmission results in narcolepsy, a sleep disease caused in humans by progressive neurodegeneration of hypothalamic neurons containing Hcrt/Ox. To explore the Hcrt/Ox system plasticity we systemically administered suvorexant (a dual Hcrt/Ox receptor antagonist) in rats to chronically block Hcrt/Ox transmission without damaging Hcrt/Ox cells. Three groups of eight rats (four males and four females) received daily i.p. injections of suvorexant (10 or 30 mg/kg) or vehicle (DMSO) over a period of 7 days in which the body weight was monitored. After the treatments cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Hcrt1/OxA concentration was measured by ELISA, and hypothalamic Hcrt/OxR1 and Hcrt/OxR2 levels by western blot. The systemic blockade of the Hcrt/Ox transmission with the suvorexant high dose produced a significant increase in body weight at the end of the treatment, and a significant decrease in CSF Hcrt1/OxA levels, both features typical in human narcolepsy type 1. Besides, a significant overexpression of hypothalamic Hcrt/OxR1 occurred. For the Hcrt/OxR2 two very close bands were detected, but they did not show significant changes with the treatment. Thus, the plastic changes observed in the Hcrt/Ox system after the chronic blockade of its transmission were a decrease in CSF Hcrt1/OXA levels and an overexpression of hypothalamic Hcrt/OxR1. These findings support an autoregulatory role of Hcrt/OxR1 within the hypothalamus, which would induce the synthesis/release of Hcrt/Ox, but also decrease its own availability at the plasma membrane after binding Hcrt1/OxA to preserve Hcrt/Ox system homeostasis.

What about dreams? State of the art and open questions

Several studies have tried to identify the neurobiological bases of dream experiences, nevertheless some questions are still at the centre of the debate. Here, we summarise the main open issues concerning the neuroscientific study of dreaming. After overcoming the rapid eye movement (REM) ‐ non‐REM (NREM) sleep dichotomy, investigations have focussed on the specific functional or structural brain features predicting dream experience. On the one hand, some results underlined that specific trait‐like factors are associated with higher dream recall frequency. On the other hand, the electrophysiological milieu preceding dream report upon awakening is a crucial state‐like factor influencing the subsequent recall. Furthermore, dreaming is strictly related to waking experiences. Based on the continuity hypothesis, some findings reveal that dreaming could be modulated through visual, olfactory, or somatosensory stimulations. Also, it should be considered that the indirect access to dreaming remains an intrinsic limitation. Recent findings have revealed a greater concordance between parasomnia‐like events and dream contents. This means that parasomnia episodes might be an expression of the ongoing mental sleep activity and could represent a viable direct access to dream experience. Finally, we provide a picture on nightmares and emphasise the possible role of oneiric activity in psychotherapy. Overall, further efforts in dream science are needed (a) to develop a uniform protocol to study dream experience, (b) to introduce and integrate advanced techniques to better understand whether dreaming can be manipulated, (c) to clarify the relationship between parasomnia events and dreaming, and (d) to determine the clinical valence of dreams.

Narcolepsy treatment in Sweden: An observational study

OBJECTIVES

To describe the pharmacological treatments (2005-2017) and the healthcare utilization (1997-2016) for patients with narcolepsy in Sweden in order to create a framework for future organizational and economic analyses.

MATERIAL & METHODS

Patients of all ages with a diagnosis of narcolepsy registered in the National Patient Registry in specialist care in Sweden were included and information on treatments for narcolepsy was retrieved from The Swedish Prescribed Drug Register.

RESULTS

We collected 2508 patients with narcolepsy, 43,3% men and 56,7% women and 47,9% were prescribed modafenil, 33,8% metylphenidate and 26,2% amphetamine. In total, 3817 treatments were initiated. Patients treated with amphetamine had a higher mean age. More women than men used modafinil, methylphenidate, amphetamine and antidepressants. The narcolepsy population had more outpatient than inpatient healthcare. Patients treated with sodium oxybate had more outpatient visits than other narcolepsy patients, before and during treatment (p = .00).

CONCLUSIONS

This study gives valuable information on pharmaceutical treatments and healthcare utilization for patients with narcolepsy and can be used to estimate the healthcare cost in the future. Patients with sodium oxybate treatment had more outpatient visits than other patients before and during treatment which may be due to the need to monitor potentially severe side-effects or may indicate that patients with sodium oxybate treatment have a severe disease. The number of included patients was less than expected; however, this may depend on patients escaping our collection of data, which does not contain information from primary care.

Narcolepsy: A clinical review

ABSTRACT

Narcolepsy continues to be a significantly underdiagnosed/misdiagnosed condition worldwide. According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), an estimated 135,000 to 200,000 patients in the United States are living with narcolepsy. However, due to the number of patients who either do not seek medical advice for their symptoms or receive an incorrect initial diagnosis at onset, this number may be higher. This article reviews the different subtypes of narcolepsy along with the pathophysiology, screening guidelines, clinical features, diagnosis, and management of the disorder. Educational awareness from a healthcare and patient standpoint can enhance early detection and accurate diagnosis of narcolepsy and improve patient quality of life.

Dream Activity in Narcoleptic Patients During the COVID-19 Lockdown in Italy

Some studies highlighted that patients with narcolepsy type-1 (NT1) experience high lucid dream frequency, and this phenomenon has been associated with a creative personality. Starting from the well-known “pandemic effect” on sleep and dreaming, we presented a picture of dream activity in pharmacologically treated NT1 patients during the Italian lockdown. Forty-three NT1 patients completed a web-survey during Spring 2021 and were compared with 86 matched-controls. Statistical comparisons revealed that: (a) NT1 patients showed greater sleepiness than controls; (b) controls showed higher sleep disturbances than NT1 patients, and this result disappeared when the medication effect in NT1 was controlled; (c) NT1 patients reported higher lucid dream frequency than controls. Focusing on dreaming in NT1 patients, we found that (a) nightmare frequency was correlated with female gender, longer sleep duration, higher intrasleep wakefulness; (b) dream recall, nightmare and lucid dream frequency were positively correlated with sleepiness. Comparisons between low and high NT1 lucid dreamers showed that patients more frequently experiencing lucid dreams reported a greater influence of dreaming during wakefulness, especially concerning problem-solving and creativity. Overall, our results are consistent with previous studies on pandemic dreaming carried out on healthy subjects. Moreover, we confirmed a link between lucidity and creativity in NT1 patients. Considering the small sample size and the cross-sectional design, our findings cannot provide a causal relationship between lucid dreams and the COVID-19 lockdown. Nevertheless, they represent a first contribution to address future studies on this issue, suggesting that some stable characteristics could interact with changes provoked by the pandemic.

Narcolepsy Presentation in Diverse Populations: an Update

Purpose of Review

We performed a literature search to generate incidence and prevalence rates of narcolepsy in diverse populations based on current available data.

Recent Findings

With an onset in childhood, narcolepsy often has a delayed diagnosis due to symptoms of excessive daytime sleepiness not being recognized or being misdiagnosed. Clinical, electrophysiological, and biological tests are needed in order to diagnose narcolepsy. At the same time, the discovery of the link with the immunoregulatory human leukocyte antigen complex and the adverse events in relation to the H1N1 pandemic vaccines have shuffled the epidemiological numbers.

Summary

In this meta-review, we pooled incidence rates and prevalence rates reported in 30 countries or from 209 sets of data. Findings are reported per age, continent, and proxy race/ethnicity as well as period (i.e., before/after the pandemic). This meta-review showed that narcolepsy occurs in 0.87-1.21 of the world population, with specifically NT1 being investigated. Its pooled incidence rate in vaccinated samples is 1.58. There is furthermore an underreporting of narcolepsy in ethnic/race and gender minorities, of childhood narcolepsy type 2 and potential comorbid conditions masking the clinical complaints and hence timely diagnosis.

Cognitions in Sleep: Lucid Dreaming as an Intervention for Nightmares in Patients With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

About 80% of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) patients suffer from nightmares or dysphoric dreams that cause major distress and impact nighttime or daytime functioning. Lucid dreaming (LD) is a learnable and effective strategy to cope with nightmares and has positive effects on other sleep variables. In LDs, the dreamer is aware of the dreaming state and able to control the dream content. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of lucid dreaming therapy (LDT) in patients suffering from PTSD. We suggest that learning a technique that enables the affected subjects to regulate the occurrence and content of nightmares autonomously increases the chance of coping with the complex symptoms of PTSD and can reduce suffering. Sleep quality (PSQI, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index), daytime sleepiness (ESS, Epworth Sleepiness Scale), quality of life (MQLI, Multicultural Quality of Life Index), psychological distress (SCL-90-R, Symptom Checklist 90-Revised), distress caused by traumatic events (IE-S, Impact of Events Scale), anxiety (SAS, Self-Rating Anxiety Scale), depression (SDS, Self-Rating Depression Scale), and nightmare severity were assessed in a self-rating questionnaire before and after the intervention. LDT had no effect on the investigated sleep variables. No correlation between reduction of nightmare severity and changes in PTSD-profile (IE-S) was found. Nevertheless, levels of anxiety and depression decreased significantly in the course of therapy. LDT could provide an alternate or complementary treatment option for nightmares in PTSD, specifically for symptoms of anxiety and depression.

Giving a voice to cataplectic experience: recollections from patients with narcolepsy type 1

STUDY OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to assess the narratives from the recalled accounts of cataplexy attacks of patients with narcolepsy type 1 (NT1).

METHODS

Twenty-two drug-naive adult patients meeting the International Classification of Sleep Disorders criteria for the diagnosis of NT1 referring to the Narcolepsy Center of the University of Bologna in the year 2017 underwent a semistructured interview focusing on their personal experiences during the cataplectic attacks. Verbatim transcripts were analyzed by thematic analysis of elementary contexts using T-LAB software.

RESULTS

The thematic analysis performed on the entire body text showed 3 clusters that explained 36.2%, 34.1%, and 29.7% of the variance, respectively: a cluster related to situations that trigger attacks of cataplexy, a cluster to bodily sensations, and another control strategies during episodes. The thematic content highlighted a tendency to disregard emotional experiences, thus affecting the ability to name, recognize, and regulate critical emotions.

CONCLUSIONS

The study showed that patients with NT1 spoke of their cataplectic attacks in terms of self-reported bodily experiences, trigger situations, and their management. Therefore, patients may have developed strategies of symptom management focused on emotion avoidance and/or inhibition.

Neuroimaging of Narcolepsy and Primary Hypersomnias

Advances in neuroimaging open up the possibility for new powerful tools to be developed that potentially can be applied to clinical populations to improve the diagnosis of neurological disorders, including sleep disorders. At present, the diagnosis of narcolepsy and primary hypersomnias is largely limited to subjective assessments and objective measurements of behavior and sleep physiology. In this review, we focus on recent neuroimaging findings that provide insight into the neural basis of narcolepsy and the primary hypersomnias Kleine-Levin syndrome and idiopathic hypersomnia. We describe the role of neuroimaging in confirming previous genetic, neurochemical, and neurophysiological findings and highlight studies that permit a greater understanding of the symptoms of these sleep disorders. We conclude by considering some of the remaining challenges to overcome, the existing knowledge gaps, and the potential role for neuroimaging in understanding the pathogenesis and clinical features of narcolepsy and primary hypersomnias.

Mental Sleep Activity and Disturbing Dreams in the Lifespan

Sleep significantly changes across the lifespan, and several studies underline its crucial role in cognitive functioning. Similarly, mental activity during sleep tends to covary with age. This review aims to analyze the characteristics of dreaming and disturbing dreams at different age brackets. On the one hand, dreams may be considered an expression of brain maturation and cognitive development, showing relations with memory and visuo-spatial abilities. Some investigations reveal that specific electrophysiological patterns, such as frontal theta oscillations, underlie dreams during sleep, as well as episodic memories in the waking state, both in young and older adults. On the other hand, considering the role of dreaming in emotional processing and regulation, the available literature suggests that mental sleep activity could have a beneficial role when stressful events occur at different age ranges. We highlight that nightmares and bad dreams might represent an attempt to cope the adverse events, and the degrees of cognitive-brain maturation could impact on these mechanisms across the lifespan. Future investigations are necessary to clarify these relations. Clinical protocols could be designed to improve cognitive functioning and emotional regulation by modifying the dream contents or the ability to recall/non-recall them.