Ethnoveterinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control in semi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe

Preserving Ethnoveterinary Medicine (EVM) along the Transhumance Routes in Southwestern Angola: Synergies between International Cooperation and Academic Research

This study delves into the ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) practiced by pastoralists along the transhumance routes in southwestern Angola. Within the framework of three cooperation projects, we conducted 434 interviews, collecting information on 89 taxa used for treating 16 livestock diseases. The most cited species was Ptaeroxylon obliquum (132 citations), followed by Salvadora persica (59) and Elaeodendron transvaalense (49). Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) was the disease most cited (223 citations; 44 species), followed by wounds (95; 20) and Newcastle (86; 14). We found that 30 species and 48 uses have not been previously reported in the ethnoveterinary literature. Jaccard index (mean value = 0.13) showed a greatly diversified knowledge among the ethnic groups: Kuvale and Nyaneka were the most knowledgeable and should be included in the various strategies for disseminating EVM in the area. Most informants recognized that abundance of some species decreased in the last years as a result of human activities and climatic changes. Finally, we discuss challenges in preserving the EVM in the area. Our findings suggest that preservation of the EVM in southwestern Angola is widely impacted by the access to biomedicine. Future studies should investigate the opportunity to integrate traditional medicine into mainstream development projects, which is crucial for decolonizing the veterinary sector in Angola.

Ethnoveterinary Study of Plant-Based Remedies for Treating Diseases in Small Ruminants in Maputo Province, Mozambique

Small ruminants, particularly goats and sheep, are key livestock species in Mozambique, and their production is mainly undertaken by families. However, small ruminants are often plagued by diseases that can cause considerable economic damage. In this context, traditional remedies, including various plant species, have been widely used to manage these diseases. The aim of this study was to explore the use of plant-based remedies and other treatments for managing diseases in small ruminants in Maputo Province, Mozambique. Data collection involved conducting interviews with 44 small ruminant breeders across 5 districts in Maputo Province to identify the plants and other remedies commonly used for managing diseases in their animals. We identified a total of 38 plant species belonging to 22 families. Among these plants, four were not identified by their scientific name. The most important plants reported were Cissus quadrangularis, Euphorbia kirkii, and Aloe sp., with Cissus quadrangularis being particularly noteworthy as it was frequently cited for the treatment of wounds. The most commonly cited botanical families were Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Asphodelaceae. Interestingly, in addition to plant-based remedies, we also identified other nonplant sources of treatment, such as alkaline batteries, which are commonly used to treat wounds in small ruminants. The use of plants for ethnoveterinary purposes remains prevalent in Maputo province, with older breeders serving as the primary custodians of this traditional knowledge. Efforts should be made to document and share the knowledge of these older breeders, ensuring that it is not lost over time. This preservation of ethnoveterinary knowledge can contribute to sustainable livestock management and support the wellbeing of both rural communities and their animals.

Putative target sites in synganglion for novel ixodid tick control strategies

Acaricide resistance is a global problem that has impacts worldwide. Tick populations with broad resistance to all commercially available acaricides have been reported. Since resistance selection in ticks and their role in pathogen transmission to animals and humans result in important economic and public health burden, it is essential to develop new strategies for their control (i.e., novel chemical compounds, vaccines, biological control). The synganglion is the tick central nervous system and it is responsible for synthesizing and releasing signaling molecules with different physiological functions. Synganglion proteins are the targets of the majority of available acaricides. In this review we provide an overview of the mode-of-action and resistance mechanisms against neurotoxic acaricides in ticks, as well as putative target sites in synganglion, as a supporting tool to identify new target proteins and to develop new strategies for tick control.

Ethnoveterinary Practices and Ethnobotanical Knowledge on Plants Used against Cattle Diseases among Two Communities in South Africa

Ethnoveterinary practices and ethnobotanical knowledge serve as potential therapeutic approaches used to manage and prevent cattle diseases within poor communities in developing nations. Most of the knowledge and practices remain inadequately documented and threatened with extinction in the future. This study aimed to explore the ethnoveterinary practices and knowledge on plants used to treat cattle diseases in two communities of the Ramotshere Moiloa local municipality, South Africa. A semi-structured interview guide, snowball, and purposive technique were used to collect data and recruit 90 participants. Three ethnobotanical indices (informant consensus factor (Fic), use-value (UV), and relative frequency of citation (RFC) were used for quantitative analysis. A total of 64 medicinal plants from 32 families (dominated by Compositae, Fabaceae, and Asparagaceae) were used to treat 27 cattle diseases. The plants with a high frequency of citation and RFC were Gomphocarpus fruticosus (75, 0.83), Opuntia ficus-indica (74, 0.82), Schkuhria pinnata and Portulaca oleracea (73, 0.81), Solanum lichtensteinii (70, 0.77), and Senna italica. In addition, Schkuhria pinnata and Aloe greatheadii (0.077) had the highest UV. About 28.13% of 64 identified plants were documented as ethnoveterinary medicine for treating cattle ailments, for the first time. The remedies were mainly either prepared as a decoction (52.04%), ground, or prepared as an infusion (16.33%). The plants were administered either orally (69.79%) or topically (30.2%). The ailments with a high frequency of citations were: wounds and constipation (76); arthralgia and retained placenta (69); and lumpy skin disease (68). The categories with the highest number of plants used were gastrointestinal problems (53), skin problems (33), respiratory problems (25), and fertility/reproduction disorders (21). The highest Fic score was cited for tick-borne diseases (1), followed by musculoskeletal systems (Fic = 0.89), and general system infection (Fic = 0.88). The current findings contribute to the documentation and preservation of valuable knowledge from indigenous communities for extensive use. Additionally, ethnoveterinary uses of Portulaca oleracea, Securidaca longipedunculata, and Plumbago zeylanica were recorded for the first time. Further scientific evaluation of the most cited and indigenous/native plants is recommended to establish their therapeutic potential and possible integration into the conventional veterinary sector for the welfare of cattle.

"The climate itself must have hidden some medicines": traditional veterinary medicine of indigenous and non-indigenous campesinos of the southern Andes

BACKGROUND

Traditional veterinary medicine (TVM) or ethnoveterinary medicine comprises knowledge, practices, and beliefs about farm animals. Its study serves to offer ecologically and culturally appropriate strategies for the management of animals and their health in a context marked by the increased use of synthetic pharmaceuticals, social-environmental degradation, pollution, and climate change. In this study, we examine the TVM that Mapuche and non-Mapuche campesinos in the southern Andes have about the management of animals and their health. In addition, we investigate the main factors influencing the current use of TVM.

METHODS

Between December 2020 and March 2021, we undertook participant observation and conducted 60 semi-structured and informal interviews with Mapuche and non-Mapuche campesinos from the Pucón and Curarrehue municipal districts in the southern Andes of Chile.

RESULTS

We identified a set of knowledge about cycles and manifestations of nature used in planning 14 animal management practices related to a Mapuche kosmos expressed in living with respect for and in dialogue with non-human elements. On health management, we recorded knowledge about 30 plant species, whose use for different categories of wounds and parasites has the highest informant consensus factors. The use of these plant species is governed by a kosmos associated with respect and reciprocity in their gathering. Nonetheless, 70% of the campesinos interviewed prefer to use synthetic pharmaceuticals. We found that the growing use of synthetic pharmaceuticals, the processes of reduction and change in the structure of land ownership, and climate change are perceived as the main factors behind processes of assimilation of new praxis and hybridization as well as the reduction and/or loss of the use of TVM.

CONCLUSION

Our results reveal the presence of ethnoveterinary knowledge, practices, and beliefs that are safeguarded by Mapuche and non-Mapuche campesinos in the southern Andes. However, in the context of different social-environmental changes, it is imperative to document, visibilize, and revitalize TVM since it provides new perspectives for bioculturally diverse and sustainable animal production.

Ethnoveterinary Remedies Used in Avian Complementary Medicine in Selected Communal Areas in Zimbabwe

Plant remedies used in avian ethnomedicine are potential candidates for the development of phytogenic feed additives. An ethnoveterinary survey was carried out in 3 districts in Zimbabwe to document plants used in poultry ethnomedicine and identify plants that have the potential to be used for the development of poultry phytogenic feed additives. The survey employed questionnaire-guided oral interviews with 146 smallholder farmers. Key areas of investigation and discussion were poultry production and traditional knowledge in bird health care (ethnotreatments and poultry disease control). The survey documented a total of 36 plant species cited as being useful interventions for the treatment and management of various poultry ailments/health constraints. These medicinal plants belonged to 22 families, with the Fabaceae family the dominant family. The plant species were used to treat 11 disease/health constraint categories, with the highest number of species being used for coccidiosis. Trees (44.44%) were the main reservoir of medicinal plants followed by herbs (36.11%), shrubs (8.33%), climbers (8.33%), and flowers (2.78%). Based on the results of the survey, Bobgunnia madagascariensis, Aloe chabaudii, Adenia gummifera, Erythrina abyssinica, Agave sisalana, Capsicum frutescens, Strychnos cocculoides, Aloe greatheadii, Tridactyle bicaudata, Senna singueana, Sarcostemma viminale, Morus alba, and Moringa oleifera are potential candidates for the development of phytogenic feed additives.

Characterisation of the indigenous knowledge used for gastrointestinal nematode control in smallholder farming areas of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa

BACKGROUND

The use of indigenous knowledge (IK) to control gastrointestinal nematodes has been known since ancient times. The objective of the study was to characterise the use of indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal nematodes in goats.

METHODS

A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from farmers. Chi-square was used to compute associations; the generalized linear model was used for mean rank scores.

RESULTS

Roundworms were the most common gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) affecting goats reared in the bushland vegetation type than grasslands. Twelve plant species were commonly used to control GIN in goats, with Cissus quadrangularis Linn. singled out as the most widely used plant with a use-value of 0.97, followed by Albizia anthelminthica Brongn. (0.66), Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl (0.63), Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter (0.59), Aloe marlothii A. Berger (0.58), Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst (0.54), Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey (0.53), Aloe maculata All. (0.50), Trichilia emetica Vahl (0.47), Aloe ferox Mill. (0.43), Vernonia neocorymbosa Hilliard (0.25) and Schkuhria pinnata (Lam) Kuntze ex Thell (0.16). C. rotundifolia, V. xanthophloea, S. birrea and T. emetica were dominant plant species used to control GIN in goats reared in the grassland vegetation. A. maculata, A. ferox and V. neocorymbosa were dominant in the bushland vegetation type.

CONCLUSION

The study revealed that ethnoveterinary plants are widely used in grassland and bushland vegetation types to control GIN in goats. Scientific validation of their efficacy and safety should be carried out to provide a cheaper alternative, thus improving the community livelihoods and development.

Linking phytochemistry to traditional uses and pharmacology of an underexplored genus - Psydrax: a review

The genus Psydrax is one of the ethno-medicinally important genera of the Rubiaceae family which has only received a limited scientific attention, despite coming from a pharmacologically and phytochemically important plant family. The genus has found applications in ethnomedical management of diabetes, stomach disorders, inflammations, cardiovascular diseases, epilepsy, wounds, malaria and fever. To unveil knowledge gaps, stimulate research interest and unravel opportunities for drug discovery from the genus Psydrax, we have carried out an extensive review on its traditional applications, phytochemistry and pharmacology for the first time. Literature on these topics was obtained from Google Scholar, Pubmed and ScienceDirect journal articles published from 1788 to September, 2021. Only articles written in English were reviewed. While several species of Pysdrax used in traditional medicine have not been chemically explored for drug discovery, over a hundred secondary metabolites have so far been identified in few species of the genus, and majority of these chemotaxonomic markers are iridoids. Bioactive extracts and some isolated constituents of Psydrax species have shown various in vitro and in vivo pharmacological properties including anti-hyperglycemia, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant and antimicrobial, and thus, support some of the ethnomedical uses of the plants. For an evidence-informed application of the genus, Psydrax, in traditional medicine, more ethnobotanical surveys, elaborate in vivo pharmacological assays, in-depth toxicity and holistic phytochemical studies are required to fully exploit more species of the genus prior to future clinical studies. Following documented traditional uses of Psydrax species, the deliberate cultivation of medicinal plants under this genus is recommended for sustainability in medicinal plant utilization.

Ethnoveterinary Knowledge and Biological Evaluation of Plants Used for Mitigating Cattle Diseases: A Critical Insight Into the Trends and Patterns in South Africa

Cattle farming is a traditional agricultural system that contribute to the rural economic, social and cultural values of the communities. Cattle as common with other livestock, are affected by many diseases that cause mortality and economic losses. In many rural households, the use of plants and associated knowledge are popular for managing cattle diseases especially in areas experiencing challenges with conventional veterinary medicine. Evidence on the documentation of indigenous knowledge and biological evaluation of plants used against cattle diseases remain understudied and fragmented. The aim of the review is to collate and analyse the ethnoveterinary knowledge and biological evaluation of plants used against cattle diseases in South Africa. Different scientific databases were systematically explored to extract data from 37 eligible studies. A total of 310 medicinal plants from 81 families used to treat 10 categories of cattle diseases across seven (7) provinces in South Africa. Leguminosae (Fabaceae), Compositae (Astereceae), Asparagaceae, and Xanthorrhoeaceae were the most frequently used plant families. Common plant parts used were leaves and roots. Twenty-seven (27) combination remedies involving 2–6 plants were identified as treatment regimes against cattle diseases. Common preparation methods were infusion and decoction while the administration mode was predominantly unspecified (52%) while oral and topical contributed 26 and 22%, respectively. In terms of diseases, the most treated ones were general systems infection, reproduction disorders and gastrointestinal problems. Currently, an estimated 21% of the 310 plants have been evaluated for diverse biological activities using relevant bioassays related to cattle diseases. Antibacterial activity remained the most studied biological activity. Evidence from the review revealed the significance of ethnoveterinary medicine against cattle diseases especially in rural areas of South Africa. Nevertheless, the use of plants for cattle diseases among other ethnic groups, particularly in the Northern Cape and Western Cape, remain under-studied.

Indigenous knowledge to mitigate the challenges of ticks in goats: A systematic review

The review collates the documented use of IK used in goats for controlling ticks and records the bioactivity testing that has been carried out on these plants. A literature survey was conducted on the use of IK whereby ethno-veterinary medicine (EVM) is used as well as on the investigations relating to the potential efficacy of the used plants. In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), ticks rank the first amongst the ectoparasites that limit goat productivity. Infrequent and overuse of acaricides have resulted in the development of resistance in ticks as well as environmental impacts. To combat these impacts, contribution of IK needs to be appreciated. In total 21, ethno-veterinary plant species, belonging to 16 families were identified to control ticks. These included plants such as Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng, Cissus quadrangularis .L, and Aloe ferox Mill, Grandifolia Warb, Terminalia brownii Fresen and Aloe volkensii Engl. Efficacy of plant species such as Pelargonium reniforme Curtis and Eucomis punctata L'Hér is enhanced by mixing them with substances like potassium permanganate and river salt to enhance the effectiveness of the extract. Ethno-veterinary plants have a wide range of phytochemicals, which include alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, anti-microbial and pesticidal effects that produces tick repellent effects. The most common plant parts used during preparations are roots, leaves, barks, fruits and young shoots and to a lesser extent flowers, although the use of leaves usually takes precedence. Non-plant materials involve the use of methods such as traditional practices where ticks are manually removed. using hand picking. Oral administration and direct application on the infested site are used. It is, thus important to conduct more work on the conservation of ethnoveterinary plants, IK information gathering and dissemination.

Global Trends of Green Pesticide Research from 1994 to 2019: A Bibliometric Analysis

The fast-growing world population places food production under enormous pressure to ensure food security. One of the most common methods to increase food production is the use of pesticides, but the continuous use thereof has numerous detrimental effects on the environment. The interest in biopesticides for a possible substitute has grown over the past two decades. To determine the research evolution of biopesticides (green pesticides), a bibliometric analysis from 1994 to 2019 was carried out. A total of 580 documents were found eligible in the Scopus database for this analysis. Parameters such as the number of articles, article citations, keywords, source impact, and countries of publication were used to analyse the documents and rank countries based on authors, productivity, article citations, and co-authorship. The analysis reveals production increased significantly from 2009 and has the most published documents in 2019 with a total of 74 articles. Asia's most populous countries, India and China, were ranked first and second, respectively, and the USA third in terms of the most productive countries in the field of plant biopesticides. Countries in Europe and Africa however have fewer publications than expected in this field, given the fact that they are high consumers of pesticides. India, China, and the USA have 4.08%, 2.94%, and 12.5% multiple country publications (MCPs), respectively, with the USA having a stronger collaboration. Finally, there is a clear indication in this study that India and China are taking the lead in substituting synthetic pesticides with the alternative natural plant biopesticide.

Spatio-temporal clustering and risk factor analysis of bovine theileriosis (Theileria parva) in Zimbabwe from 1995 to 2018

Bovine theileriosis (caused by Theileria parva) is the most important tick-borne transboundary animal disease endemic to Zimbabwe, yet its distribution dynamics data in the country remain scant and outdated. A retrospective study was conducted to determine high-risk areas of bovine theileriosis and associated risk factors in Zimbabwe. Records on bovine theileriosis spanning 23 years (January 1995 to December 2018) were obtained from the Epidemiological Unit of the Division of Field Veterinary Services of Zimbabwe (DVSZ). Data were analysed using Studio R^® version 11.0 for regression analysis and SatScan^® version 9.4.6 for spatio-temporal clustering. Communal farmers (72%), adult cattle (29%), the year 2018 (60%) and the hot wet season (42%) had the highest proportion (p < .050) of bovine theileriosis cases recorded. Seven out of the country's ten provinces and 36 of its 59 districts were affected. Bovine theileriosis was observed to lose seasonality when cases rose exponentially in 2018. Five and four high-risk clusters of bovine theileriosis were detected using one-year and one-month time aggregate, respectively, all within the last eight years of the study (2011-2018). Two potential risk factors (province and farming system) were significantly (p < .050) associated with bovine theileriosis occurrence. Bovine theileriosis was found to be rampant and if left unchecked will spread and adversely affect the whole country. Improved theileriosis surveillance and control is warranted. Recommendations for control and prevention strategies revolve around better farmer awareness about the disease, correct and consistent use of acaricides, cattle movement control and disease surveillance among others.

The effect of Beauveria bassiana inoculation on plant growth, volatile constituents, and tick (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus) repellency of acetone extracts of Tulbaghia violacea

Aim

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of Beauveria bassiana (Hypocreales) inoculum on plant growth, volatile constituents, and tick repellency of the extracts of Tulbaghia violacea (Amaryllidaceae).

Materials and Methods

Eight-week-old potted seedlings of T. violacea were each inoculated with conidia of B. bassiana (strain SM3) suspended at a concentration of 1×10⁶ conidia mL^-1. Tissue colonization by fungal conidia was assessed after 3 weeks. Plant growth, volatile constituents, and tick repellency were assessed after 12 weeks post-treatment.

Results

B. bassiana conidia successfully colonized leaf and root tissues of T. violacea. The growth of fungal hyphae out of the leaf and root sections occurred in 75% and 91.6% of plants, respectively. Inoculation of the plants with B. bassiana significantly (p<0.05) influenced root length and plant height but did not have substantial effects on weights and leaf number of T. violacea. While the fungus did not have significant effects on overall number of the volatile chemical constituents, significant variations in the quantity (area ratio) were observed in at least four compounds that were detected. In the tick repellency bioassay, high concentration (20 w/v%) of acetone extract from fungus-exposed plants produced the least repellent effect on Rhipicephalus appendiculatus larvae (Ixodidae), while at lower concentrations (5 w/v% and 10 w/v%) of acetone extracts of T. violacea, tick repellent activity of the extract of the fungus treatment was significantly improved and was comparable to commercial N,N-Diethyl-m-toluamide and the other treatments.

Conclusion

Experimental fungal inoculation positively influenced plant growth in height and root length and tick (R. appendiculatus) repellency of acetone extracts of T. violacea at a concentration of 10 w/v% compared to the control treatment.

Utilisation of indigenous knowledge to control ticks in goats: a case of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa

Local indigenous knowledge (IK) informs decision-making about fundamental aspects of life. The inclusion of indigenous knowledge is increasingly becoming a topical subject to enhance livestock veterinary care. The objective of the current study was to explore the extent of utilisation of indigenous knowledge to control ticks in goats. There was an association (P < 0.05) between the use of IK and gender, with males using IK (76.58%) more than females. The association between age distribution and IK use was (P < 0.05); however, farmers above the age of 50 years were using IK more than all group ages. Farmers ranked the purposes of using IK differently (P < 0.05). Ectoparasites were ranked as the most important constraint limiting goat productivity. Ticks were ranked as the most important external parasites. Amblyomma tick species were ranked as the most important amongst the tick species, followed by Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi ticks. A significant population of farmers (80.7%) are dependent on the use of tick sprays, whereas others used injections (3.3%). Cissus quadrangularis L. (Inhlashwana) was singled out as the most used ethno-veterinary plant to control ticks with a frequency of (64%), followed by Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey (Uphehlacwathi) (55.9%). The probability of keeping goats in wet rangelands (P < 0.05) was 3.04 times more likely to influence the extent of IK use compared to their contemporaries in the dry rangeland. Male farmers keeping goats (P < 0.01) were 2.95 more likely to influence the extent of use of IK than females. The type of rangeland, gender, age, residing on farm and also having the herbalist in the locality were the most common factors that influenced the extent of IK utilisation.

Addition of a surfactant to water increases the acaricidal activity of extracts of some plant species used to control ticks by Zimbabwean smallholder farmers

Background

Many studies have revealed that bioactive compounds for different indications are not extracted from plants with water, the only extractant practically available to rural communities. We compared the acaricidal activity of acetone extracts of 13 species used traditionally to protect cattle against ticks. We also investigated if the extraction of biologically active compounds against Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus ticks could be enhanced by adding a liquid soap that is locally available to smallholder farmers.

Methods

A total of 13 plant species selected based on reported traditional use in Zimbabwe, were dried and finely ground before extraction with water, or water plus a surfactant, or acetone. The adapted Shaw Larval Immersion Test (SLIT) method was used to determine the activity of acetone and crude water extracts with or without liquid soap against the tick larvae. The activity of four fractions of crude acetone extracts (extracted using solvents of different polarity), of the most active plant species, Maerua edulis (tuber and leaf) was also compared to identify the most active fraction.

Results

Aqueous plant extracts were not toxic to ticks, but the addition of 1% liquid soap as a surfactant increased mortality of the R. (B) decoloratus larvae significantly. With the Maerua edulis tuber extract, the efficacy of the 1% liquid soap was comparable to that of the amitraz based commercial synthetic acaricide. The use of acetone as an extractant, also increased the mortality of the tick larvae in all the plant species. With M. edulis (tuber and leaf), Monadenium lugardae and Kleinia sp. acetone extracts, the activity was comparable to that of the positive control (a commercially available amitraz-based synthetic acaricide). The non-polar fractions of the acetone extract of leaf and tuber of M. edulis caused up to 100% mortality. This indicates that non-polar to intermediate polarity compounds are responsible for the acaricidal activity.

Conclusion

Organic solvents such as acetone extracted active compounds but water did not. By adding commonly available dishwashing soap to water active compounds were extracted leading to a high acaricidal activity of the plant extracts. In some cases, it was as active as non-polar extracts and a synthetic commercial acaricide (positive control). This approach makes it possible for the smallholder farmers and traditional healers to extract biologically active compounds from plants by using water.

Impact of East Coast fever on Grande Comore: assessment taking a participatory epidemiology approach

East Coast fever (ECF), one of the most serious tick-borne diseases in sub-Saharan and eastern Africa, was introduced to the island of Grande Comore in 2002 through zebu import from Tanzania, resulting in at least a 10% loss of livestock. A participatory epidemiology initiative was launched in 2015 to gain a better understanding of ECF epidemiology. Thirty-six villages were investigated involving 36 focus group sessions and 120 individual questionnaires. Farmers' knowledge of ECF and of priority diseases affecting the country was assessed, and the impacts of ECF and other major diseases were compared by a scoring method. The results showed that 69.4% (95% CI [51.3, 87.5%]) of the farmers had good to very good knowledge of ECF. The most important cattle diseases on Grande Comore were considered to be East Coast fever, heartwater, babesiosis, and cutaneous diseases. About 58% of the farmers (95% CI [49.2, 66.8%]) use curative treatments when cattle were sick. Between January and September 2015, the ECF incidence was estimated at 18.5% (95% CI [15.5, 21.4%]), and 87.5% (95% CI [72.7, 100%]) of the cattle infected by ECF died. The ECF incidence estimated in our study was found to be less when compared to that observed in Tanzania even though the climatic conditions in the Union of the Comoros are suitable for the biological vector of ECF, the tick species Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. Access to chemical treatment and its effectiveness against ECF, as well as controlling borders and organizing quarantine, are discussed.

A review of the traditional use of southern African medicinal plants for the treatment of selected parasite infections affecting humans

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Worldwide, more than three billion cases of parasitic disease are reported yearly and it is likely that this figure is substantially under-estimated. Approximately one in six people globally are estimated to be infected with at least one parasite species annually. In South Africa, the prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium (bilharzia) and intestinal worms and helminths are particularly high, especially in children and in crowded or poorer rural communities with inadequate sanitation and nutrition. Despite alarmingly high estimates, medical research into parasitic diseases remains neglected and only malaria receives significant attention and funding. Traditional medicines have been used for centuries in Africa by multiple ethnic groups and many people rely on these healing systems as their primary healthcare modality. The traditional use of South African medicinal plants to treat parasite infestations is relatively well documented, and it is important to link these traditional uses to scientific evidence validating efficacy.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To document the medicinal plants used for parasitic infections and critically review the literature on the anti-parasitic properties of South African plants against some neglected parasitic diseases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A review of the literature (ethnobotanical books and publications documenting traditional plant use) was undertaken related to specific medicinal use for parasitic infections in Southern Africa. Inclusion criteria focused on human use. Exclusion criteria included veterinary use and malaria due to the extensive nature of these subject matters. An in-depth analysis of previous studies was undertaken and future prospectives are considered.

RESULTS

In particular, bilharzia, gastrointestinal worms and helminths, ectoparasites, trichomoniasis, leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis are reviewed with special emphasis on the gaps in research.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the availability of relatively extensive ethnobotanical records on the anti-parasitic properties of southern African medicinal plants, the antiparasitic properties of many plants have been poorly examined. There was in many instances a lack of evidence to support traditional use of many species towards some parasites and research is urgently needed in this area.

In vitro effects of Pilocarpus microphyllus extracts and pilocarpine hydrochloride on Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus

The aim of this study was to assess the activity of aqueous (AE) and ethanolic extracts (EE) and pilocarpine hydrochloride, which were extracted and isolated from Pilocarpus microphyllus (Jaborandi), respectively, on Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was performed to quantify these compounds. Larval packet and adult immersion tests were conducted with different concentrations. Five AE and EE concentrations, ranging from 6.2 to 100.0 mg mL-1, and six concentrations of pilocarpine hydrochloride, ranging from 0.7 to 24.0 mg mL-1, were tested. The lethal concentration (LC50) of each extract for larvae and engorged females was calculated through Probit analysis. The concentration of pilocarpine hydrochloride obtained from the EE and the AE was 1.3 and 0.3% (m/m), respectively. Pilocarpine hydrochloride presented the highest acaricidal activity on larvae (LC50 2.6 mg mL-1) and engorged females (LC50 11.8 mg mL-1) of R.(B.) microplus, followed by the EE which presented LC50 of 56.4 and 15.9 mg mL-1, for larvae and engorged females, respectively. Such results indicate that pilocarpine hydrochloride has acaricidal activity, and may be the primary compound responsible for this activity by P. microphyllus EE.

Acacia karroo Hayne: Ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of an important medicinal plant in southern Africa

Acacia karroo (A. karroo) has been used as herbal medicine by the indigenous people of southern Africa for several centuries. The potential of A. karroo as herbal medicine, its associated phytochemistry and biological activities are reviewed. The extensive literature survey revealed that A. karroo is traditionally used to treat or manage 32 and five human and animal diseases and ailments, respectively. The species is used as herbal medicine for diseases and ailments such as colds, diarrhoea, dysentery, flu, malaria, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), wounds, and also as colic and ethnoveterinary medicine. Multiple classes of phytochemicals such as flavonoids, phenols, phytosterols, proanthocyanidin, tannin, terpenes as well as several minerals have been identified from leaves and roots of A. karroo. Scientific studies on A. karroo indicate that it has a wide range of pharmacological activities which include antibacterial, antifungal, antigonococcal, antihelmintic, antilisterial, antimalarial, antimycobacterial, antioxidant, HIV-1 reverse transcriptase, anti-inflammatory and analgesic. A. karroo has a lot of potential as a possible source of pharmaceutical products for the treatment of a wide range of both human and animal diseases and ailments. Future research should focus on the mechanisms of action of the different plant parts used as herbal medicines, isolated compounds, their efficacy, toxicity and clinical relevance.

Medical pluralism and livestock health: ethnomedical and biomedical veterinary knowledge among East African agropastoralists

BACKGROUND

Human and animal health are deeply intertwined in livestock dependent areas. Livestock health contributes to food security and can influence human health through the transmission of zoonotic diseases. In low-income countries diagnosis and treatment of livestock diseases is often carried out by household members who draw upon both ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) and contemporary veterinary biomedicine (VB). Expertise in these knowledge bases, along with their coexistence, informs treatment and thus ultimately impacts animal and human health. The aim of the current study was to determine how socio-cultural and ecological differences within and between two livestock-keeping populations, the Maasai of northern Tanzania and Koore of southwest Ethiopia, impact expertise in EVM and VB and coexistence of the two knowledge bases.

METHODS

An ethnoveterinary research project was conducted to examine dimensions of EVM and VB knowledge among the Maasai (N = 142 households) and the Koore (N = 100). Cultural consensus methods were used to quantify expertise and the level of agreement on EVM and VB knowledge. Ordinary least squares regression was used to model patterns of expertise and consensus across groups and to examine associations between knowledge and demographic/sociocultural attributes.

RESULTS

Maasai and Koore informants displayed high consensus on EVM but only the Koore displayed consensus on VB knowledge. EVM expertise in the Koore varied across gender, herd size, and level of VB expertise. EVM expertise was highest in the Maasai but was only associated with age. The only factor associated with VB expertise was EVM expertise in the Koore.

CONCLUSIONS

Variation in consensus and the correlates of expertise across the Maassi and the Koore are likely related to differences in the cultural transmission of EVM and VB knowledge. Transmission dynamics are established by the integration of livestock within the socioecological systems of the Maasai and Koore and culture historical experiences with livestock disease. Consideration of the nature and coexistence of EVM and VB provides insight into the capacity of groups to cope with disease outbreaks, pharmaceutical use patterns, and the development of community health interventions.

Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng.: Traditional and Commercial Uses and Phytochemical and Pharmacological Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent

Lippia javanica occurs naturally in central, eastern, and southern Africa and has also been recorded in the tropical Indian subcontinent. The potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal medicine and its associated phytochemistry and biological properties are reviewed. The extensive literature survey revealed that L. javanica is used as herbal tea and has ethnomedicinal applications such as in colds, cough, fever, malaria, wounds, diarrhoea, chest pains, bronchitis, and asthma. Multiple classes of phytochemicals including volatile and nonvolatile secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, amino acids, flavonoids, iridoids, and triterpenes as well as several minerals have been identified from L. javanica. Scientific studies on L. javanica indicate that it has a wide range of pharmacological activities which include anticancer, antiamoebic, antidiabetic, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiplasmodial, and pesticidal effects. Although many of the traditional uses of L. javanica have been validated by phytochemical and pharmacological studies, there are still some gaps where current knowledge could be improved. Lippia javanica is popular as both herbal and recreational tea, but there is need for more precise studies to evaluate the safety and clinical value of its main active crude and pure compounds and to clarify their mechanisms of action.