Traditional knowledge and cultural importance of Borassus aethiopum Mart. in Benin: interacting effects of socio-demographic attributes and multi-scale abundance

Gendered traditional agroecological knowledge in agri-food systems: a systematic review

Traditional agroecological knowledge (i.e. TAeK) is gaining recognition for its potential contribution to climate change adaptation in food systems, ecosystems restoration and food insecurity. Despite the existing literature on Traditional Ecological Knowledge and its nexus with food security, how gender critically influences the distribution of such knowledge within agri-food systems has not yet been systematically analysed. In this regard, this systematic review attempts to answer four questions: 1) How does the literature on gender and TAeK in agri-food systems evolved temporally, geographically and in different agroecosystems? 2) How are gender and intersectionality mainly approached by such literature? 3) How do the articles address gendered dimensions in TAeK within the agri-food system activities? 4) What are the main drivers of change that influence TAeK and adaptive responses? The results show the gendered nature of TAeK in relation to food production, processing, and conservation activities, and how these activities are linked to tasks and activities, gender-specific knowledge, and spaces where gender discrimination is reproduced. The review also identifies elements that delimit and/or take part of the development of TAeK, such as gendered access to resources, gendered institutions, and the identification of the main drivers of change and impacts of TAeK erosion and biodiversity loss. These results are discussed in terms of power relations that interact with sociocultural norms and practices according to the specific geographical context and agroecosystem.

The resource availability hypothesis (RAH) and cross-cultural patterns: which one explains West African Cochlospermum species' uses in Benin?

BACKGROUND

Cochlospermum tinctorium and C. planchonii are two wide edible plants of sub-Saharan countries, e.g., Benin, widely used as food, medicine, dye, handicraft, etc. Unfortunately, the uncontrolled harvest of their rootstocks exposes them to local extension risk. To enhance knowledge on the determinants of their uses in Benin, this study aimed to (i) assess the use forms, use values, abundance and perceived spatiotemporal dynamics, (ii) determine how does local abundance or cultural patterns affect the use of Cochlospermum species, and (iii) assess local harvesting modes and conservation management practices.

METHODS

In total, 756 Dialog Partners through 27 ethnic groups were questioned countrywide using semi-structured interviews. Questions refer to local taxonomy, specific uses, organs sought, harvesting modes and local conservation strategies; afterward, local abundance of each species was assessed. Ethnobotanical indicators were analyzed through citation frequencies to obtain quantitative data. Comparison tests and statistical analyses were performed using R program.

RESULTS

C. tinctorium and C. planchonii are locally well known and involved into 83 specific uses, grouped into ten categories of which medicinal use was the main. The use values of C. planchonii (0.10 ± 0.19) and C. tinctorium (0.23 ± 0.20) varied significantly between the ethnic groups, and only C. tinctorium showed index of commercially value above 75% for some ethnic groups. The current abundance, about 84 and 97 tufts.ha^-1, respectively, for C. planchonii and C. tinctorium was perceived with a decline of 81.09% (C. tinctorium) and 73.7% (C. planchonii) of informants. Moreover, the Spearman's correlation and Kruskal-Wallis tests performed revealed that the use values of C. tinctorium and C. planchonii were significantly correlated on the one hand with their local abundance and on the other hand with the investigated ethnic groups. About 42.3% of women produced the powder as principal activity, while more than 57% produced it mainly at the end of farm work. However, the conservation management was practiced by very few informants and consisted of partial harvesting of rootstocks (41.8%, only in southern Benin), and fallowing of harvesting areas (3.97%, only in northern Benin).

CONCLUSION

Facing the declining abundance and increasing market demand for rootstock powder of Cochlospermum species, existing local conservation strategies should be promoted and the domestication process should be initiated for sustainable management of these important wild edible plants before these important resources disappear completely in the wild.

Old Sacred Trees as Memories of the Cultural Landscapes of Southern Benin (West Africa)

Large old trees (LOTs) are emblematic elements of the cultural landscape and can live for hundreds of years. They represent an intermediate aspect of cultural heritage, linking spirits and humans. They can also provide a range of ecosystem services. In spite of their importance, declining numbers have been reported. This study examined the diversity of LOTs and the impact of anthropogenic threats on their preservation in three districts of southern Benin: Ketou and Abomey, which represent historical districts with royal courts, and Lokossa, which does not have a tradition as a dynastic seat. Semi-structured interviews focused on ethnobotanical aspects and storytelling were conducted with a total of 150 community leaders and traditional practitioners; these were coupled with an inventory of LOTs to demonstrate their importance in maintaining the heritage and providing ecosystem services in cultural landscapes. Diversity, cultural importance, and ethnobotanical indices were calculated to compare positive and negative attitudes towards LOTs by the local people of the study areas. A total of 270 LOT individuals belonging to 14 species were recorded. The most common species was Adansonia digitata (70 individuals), followed by Milicia excelsa (47 individuals), Ceiba pentandra (37 individuals), and Blighia sapida (25 individuals). Sacred forests and the royal palaces (ten for Abomey and three for Kétou), which are protected by a traditional veto, had the highest number of LOTs (145 individuals) belonging to nine species. Details of 79 specific uses were documented for each plant part of LOTs. The most frequently reported were related to medicinal (80.64%), cultic (16.65%), and craft uses (2.6%). Based on a standard area of 100 km2, mean Shannon diversity (H’) and evenness (J) were lower in the cultural landscape of Ketou (H′ = 0.26 ± 0.42; J = 0.23 ± 0.37) compared to Lokossa (H′ = 0.27 ± 0.32; J = 0.21 ± 0.24) and Abomey (H′ = 0.42 ± 0.37; J = 0.35 ± 0.31). The threat patterns suggest that, irrespective of the species involved, certain determining factors (urbanization (35%), the timber trade (18%), and decisions made during the Marxist–Leninist revolution in Benin in 1972 (11%)) have affected and continue to affect LOT abundance and diversity. For better management of LOTs, there is a need to promote decision-making strategies that better align human cultural values and ecological objectives.

Predicting the potential impacts of climate change on the endangered Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb in Benin (West Africa)

Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb is a medicinal plant with high therapeutic values but declared extinct in the wild in Benin. This study explored the potential distribution and climatic suitability of the species under the present-day and future conditions in Benin, based on two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) at the 2055-time horizon. The occurrence data were recorded in the distribution area of the species in Benin. These data were supplemented with those from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF, www.gbif.org) website and the literature. A total of 23 environmental variables (15 bioclimatic data and 8 biophysical data) were used. The Bioclimatic variables for temperature and humidity were downloaded from Africlim site at 1 km resolution. The biophysical variables concern population, elevation, slope, landcover, wetland, distance to river, soil and distance to dwellings data that are downloaded respectively from DIVA-GIS, ISRIC and SEDAC website at different resolution. A correlation test has been applied to eliminate the highly correlated variables (r ≥ 0.9) using Pearson correlation coefficient. Species distribution modelling data were processed using five algorithms namely Random Forest (RF), Boosted Regression Trees (BRT), Maximum entropy (MAXENT), Generalized Linear Models (GLM) and Generalized Additive Models (GAM). The results showed that all models performed well with the area under the curve (AUC) values greater than 0.9. The RF, GLM, and GAM models predicted an increase in the suitable areas for the cultivation of the species. BRT and MaxEnt showed a substantial decrease in the suitable areas based on the two scenarios but this reduction is more observed with the MaxEnt model. These results show that climate change and human pressures will have significant effects on the distribution of C. bonduc throughout Benin. Sustainable management measures are necessary for C. bonduc and should be integrated in development policies to preserve the population of the species from total extinction in Benin.

The Future of Food: Domestication and Commercialization of Indigenous Food Crops in Africa over the Third Decade (2012–2021)

This paper follows the transition from ethnobotany to a deeper scientific understanding of the food and medicinal properties of African agroforestry tree products as inputs into the start of domestication activities. It progresses on to the integration of these indigenous trees as new crops within diversified farming systems for multiple social, economic and environmental benefits. From its advent in the 1990s, the domestication of indigenous food and non-food tree species has become a global programme with a strong African focus. This review of progress in the third decade is restricted to progress in Africa, where multi-disciplinary research on over 59 species has been reported in 759 research papers in 318 science publications by scientists from over 833 research teams in 70 countries around the world (532 in Africa). The review spans 23 research topics presenting the recent research literature for tree species of high priority across the continent, as well as that in each of the four main ecological regions: the humid zone of West and Central Africa; the Sahel and North Africa; the East African highlands and drylands; and the woody savannas of Southern Africa. The main areas of growth have been the nutritional/medicinal value of non-timber forest products; the evaluation of the state of natural resources and their importance to local people; and the characterization of useful traits. However, the testing of putative cultivars; the implementation of participatory principles; the protection of traditional knowledge and intellectual property rights; and the selection of elite trees and ideotypes remain under-researched. To the probable detriment of the upscaling and impact in tropical agriculture, there has been, at the international level, a move away from decentralized, community-based tree domestication towards a laboratory-based, centralized approach. However, the rapid uptake of research by university departments and national agricultural research centres in Africa indicates a recognition of the importance of the indigenous crops for both the livelihoods of rural communities and the revitalization and enhanced outputs from agriculture in Africa, especially in West Africa. Thus, on a continental scale, there has been an uptake of research with policy relevance for the integration of indigenous trees in agroecosystems and their importance for the attainment of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. To progress this in the fourth decade, there will need to be a dedicated Centre in Africa to test and develop cultivars of indigenous crops. Finally, this review underpins a holistic approach to mitigating climate change, as well as other big global issues such as hunger, poverty and loss of wildlife habitat by reaping the benefits, or ‘profits’, from investment in the five forms of Capital, described as ‘land maxing’. However, policy and decision makers are not yet recognizing the potential for holistic and transformational adoption of these new indigenous food crop opportunities for African agriculture. Is ‘political will’ the missing sixth capital for sustainable development?

Use Patterns, Knowledge Diversity and Drivers for the Cultivation of the Miracle Plant [Synsepalum dulcificum (Schumach & Thonn.) Daniell] in Benin and Ghana

Despite the growing interest in the miracle plant worldwide due to its numerous applications, the threats and the wild harvest of the species hamper its sustainable utilisation. Moreover, traditional knowledge so far documented on the species is limited to a narrow geographical coverage of its natural distribution range, which is West and Central Africa. This study analysed the use variation and knowledge acquisition pattern of the miracle plant among West African sociolinguistic groups and deciphered the drivers of populations’ willingness and readiness to engage in cultivating the species. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 510 respondents purposively selected from nine sociolinguistic groups in Benin and Ghana using the snowball sampling approach. Information was collected on respondents’ socio-demographic profile, miracle plant ownership, plant parts used and preparation methods, knowledge of the species bioecology, perceived threats on the species, willingness to cultivate, maximum acreage to allocate to the species and maximum price to pay for a seedling. Descriptive statistics, generalized linear models, classification and regression tree models were used for data analysis. The miracle plant ownership mode depended on the age category. Sociolinguistic affiliation, level of schooling, migratory status and religion significantly affected the number of trees owned. We recorded 76 uses belonging to six use categories. The overall use-value of the miracle plant significantly varied according to the respondent sociolinguistic affiliation, main activity and religion. Men were the main source of knowledge and knowledge is mainly acquired along the family line. Knowledge related to food and social uses was mostly acquired from parents and people of the same generation, while magico-therapeutic and medicinal use-related knowledge were inherited from parents and grandparents. Sociolinguistic affiliation, awareness of taboos and market availability were the most important drivers of respondent willingness to cultivate the miracle plant. While the respondent’s level of schooling and perception of plant growth rate determined the maximum acreage they were willing to allocate to the species in cultivation schemes, their main activity, sociolinguistic affiliation and knowledge of the species time to fruiting drove the maximum purchase price they were willing to offer for a seedling of the species. Our findings provide key information for the promotion of miracle plant cultivation in the study area.

Human-Wildlife Conflicts in the Southern Yungas: What Role do Raptors Play for Local Settlers?

Wildlife persecution due to human-wildlife conflict has become a serious concern for biodiversity conservation, especially for many endangered species. In this context, conservation approaches need to consider the socio-ecological dimensions of each particular situation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the existence, extent and social characteristics of Human-Raptor Conflicts (HRC) in the Southern Yungas region in northwestern Argentina. We conducted 115 semi-structured interviews in 21 sites and analyzed attitudes and associations between sociodemographic variables and the existence of HRC. Forty percent of interviewees showed negative attitudes towards raptors, mainly with those species considered livestock predators rather than poultry predators. A total of 11 species were regarded as conflictive because of predation on domestic animals, of which Andean condors showed the highest conflict. The only socio-demographic factor affecting conflicts was livestock and poultry rearing, independently of age, gender and occupation of interviewees. The fact that only 8.7% of interviewees reported taking direct actions towards conflictive species indicates a relatively peaceful coexistence of people with raptors. Nevertheless, negative attitudes towards Andean condor together with their extreme susceptibility to any increase in non-natural mortality indicate the need of an integral conservation approach to tackle future threats for this species' conservation in the area.

Transferability, development of simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers and application to the analysis of genetic diversity and population structure of the African fan palm (Borassus aethiopum Mart.) in Benin

Background

In Sub-Saharan Africa, Borassus aethiopum Mart. (African fan palm) is an important non-timber forest product-providing palm that faces multiple anthropogenic threats to its genetic diversity. However, this species is so far under-studied, which prevents its sustainable development as a resource. The present work is a first attempt at characterizing the genetic diversity and population structure of B. aethiopum across nine collection sites spanning the three climatic regions of Benin, West Africa, through the use of microsatellite markers.

Results

During a first phase we relied on the reported transferability of primers developed in other palm species. We find that, in disagreement with previously published results, only 22.5% of the markers tested enable amplification of B. aethiopum DNA and polymorphism detection is very low.

In a second phase, we generated a B. aethiopum-specific genomic dataset through high-throughput sequencing and used it for the de novo detection of microsatellite loci. Among the primer pairs targeting these, 11 detected polymorphisms and were further used for analyzing genetic diversity. Across the nine sites, expected heterozygosity (He) ranges from 0.263 to 0.451 with an overall average of 0.354, showing a low genetic diversity. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) shows that within-site variation accounts for 53% of the genetic variation. Accordingly, the low number of migrants and positive values of the fixation index (F) in sites from both the Central (Sudano-Guinean) and the Southern (Guinean) climatic regions suggest limited gene flow between sites. The global correlation between genetic and geographic distances is weak; however, our clustering analyses indicate that B. aethiopum palms from Savè (Center) are genetically more similar to those from the North than to samples from other Central sites.

Conclusions

In the light of our results, we discuss the use of inter-species transfer vs. de novo development of microsatellite markers in genetic diversity analyses targeting under-studied species, and suggest future applications for our molecular resources. We propose that, while prominent short-range pollen and seed dispersal in Benin explain most of our results, gene flux between the Central and Northern regions, as a result of animal and/or human migrations, might underlie the Savè discrepancy.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12863-020-00955-y.

Local preferences for three indigenous oil-seed plants and attitudes towards their conservation in the Kénédougou province of Burkina Faso, West-Africa

BACKGROUND

Carapa procera, Lophira lanceolata, and Pentadesma butyracea are three underutilized but increasingly threatened indigenous oil-seed tree species (IOS) in tropical Africa. Because local knowledge is vital for sustainable management, this study investigated the socio-economic factors that explain local people's (i) preferences for these IOS, (ii) attitudes toward their conservation, and (iii) ability to identify "plus trees" based on seed traits. We predicted a positive relationship between response variables and informants' age, residence status, gender (femaleness), and existence of market opportunities for each IOS. We also predicted that a higher preference for a given IOS has a positive effect on people's attitudes for its conservation and the aptitude to identify its "plus trees." We additionally expected significant differences among ethnic groups for each response variable.

METHODS

Data were collected through individual semi-structured interviews with 336 informants from 14 randomly selected villages in the species distribution area of Kénédougou province. For each species, the collected data were the number of actual uses reported (converted to use value-UV, as a measure of the species preference), practiced conservation actions (converted to conservation attitude using a four-scale scoring method), and possible criteria for selecting preferred trees for seed oil extraction. Generalized linear mixed models were used to test for the fixed effects of socio-economic factors, and account for the random variation across villages.

RESULTS

The results showed species-specific patterns. Carapa procera had the highest UV and hence was the most preferred IOS, particularly by women. Informants from the Siamou ethnic group had the highest UV irrespective of IOS. The most cited conservation actions were assisted natural regeneration and banning of tree cutting, which were practiced for C. procera and L. lanceolata. No conservation measure was cited for P. butyracea. The practice of tree planting was not recorded for any of the IOS. Young and male informants participated less in conservation actions. Tree selection for oil-seed collection was mainly guided not by "oil extraction yield" but rather by the "quality of extracted oil" (namely oil color and taste for food uses, and oil bitterness for medicinal efficacy). The selection mainly concerned L. lanceolata and was mostly practiced by elderly people.

CONCLUSION

This study provided useful local knowledge-based information to guide conservation actions and valorization strategies of three IOS. The study sheds further light on the socio-economic factors that are associated to local people's preferences, conservation attitudes, and individual tree selection.

Inter and intra cultural variations of millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br) uses in Niger (West Africa)

BACKGROUND

An ethnobotanical study was conducted in the eight regions of Niger to identify local knowledge variation of millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br) uses. In fact, the level of individual knowledge can be affected by many factors such as gender, age, ethnicity, occupation, religious and cultural beliefs, etc. This study documented indigenous knowledge of millet uses in Niger and aimed specifically to (i) identify the different types of millet organ uses and (ii) assess the variation of local knowledge of millet uses along with ethnicity, occupation, and age.

METHODS

The data were collected in 32 major millet-producing villages in Niger through individual semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. About 508 individuals from 5 ethnic groups were interviewed. The assessment of the knowledge was performed by calculating five ethnobotanical indices such as the number of reported uses by parts of the plant (RU), the use-value of the parts of the plant (PPV), the specific use-value (SU), the intraspecific use-value (IUV), and the relative frequency of citations (FRC). Data were analyzed using descriptive, univariate, and multivariate statistical analyses.

RESULTS

The results indicated a significant variation in uses across ethnic groups (H = 38.14, P = 0.000) and socio-occupational categories (H = 6.80, P = 0.033). The Hausa, Kanuri, and Zarma-Sonhrai ethnic groups, farmers were the largest users of the species. Dietary (51.40%) and forage (40.35%) were the most reported uses. The most commonly used parts of the plant were the stubble (74.92%) and grains (73.68%).

CONCLUSIONS

The study showed the importance of P. glaucum in the daily life of local people. It also confirmed the uneven distribution of indigenous knowledge of millet uses in Niger due to social factors. Now, the challenge is how to incorporate these social differences in knowledge of millet uses in view to sustainable management and conservation of local genetic resources of millet. Finally, this work could be an important decision-making tool for future millet valuing.

Traditional knowledge and cultural importance of Gardenia erubescens Stapf & Hutch. in Sudanian savanna of Burkina Faso

BACKGROUND

Traditional knowledge (TK) on the different uses of under-valued fruit tree species including Gardenia erubescens Stapf & Hutch.-a plant species of least concern (LC) based on International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classification yet considered threatened due to overharvesting by a National Assessment in addition to 59 other species in Burkina Faso. This study aimed to collect and synthesize information on traditional knowledge and cultural importance of G. erubescens. This information will contribute to document traditional knowledge systems that are fast eroding due to the lack of transmission of the knowledge and will also highlight G. erubescens as a priority species for conservation given that this species is widely used among householders in rural areas in Burkina Faso.

METHODS

This study assesses TK on the uses and cultural importance (CI) of G. erubescens, among 514 randomly selected respondents across 15 villages bordering three community forest areas located in Eastern and Centre-Western Regions of Burkina Faso through face-to-face semi-structured interviews. Additionally, the uses and CI of G. erubescens were evaluated in relation to informant's gender, ethnicity, generation, and location. Ethnobotanical indices (relative frequency of citation, relative use value, and CI) were computed using generalized linear models, Kruskal-Wallis, and Mann-Whitney tests.

RESULTS

Results indicated 30 specific uses of G. erubescens of which food values recorded the highest uses as reported by 58.97% respondents followed by medicine (17.22%) with a very low 0.23% for magical uses. Food and medicinal uses were the most important for women while men valued more the species for constructions, cultural, and magical uses. The fruit is the most preferred and marketable part of the plant while the leaves, fruits, roots, leafy twigs, and bark are mainly harvested for pharmacopeia and psycho-magical problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Traditional knowledge on the uses of G. erubescens varied significantly in relation to gender, ethnicity, generations, and case study locations. Despite the importance of G. erubescens for food and other livelihood values, this specie is of LC to the IUCN; yet, a National Assessment considers it as threatened. The multiple uses of this specie based on TK systems for uses such as food, income, medicine, etc. is an indication that G. erubescens if sustainable managed could form an important safety net especially for rural households in Burkina Faso that are highly dependent on trees and forest resources.

Species richness, cultural importance, and prioritization of wild spices for conservation in the Sudano-Guinean zone of Benin (West Africa)

BACKGROUND

Spices have always been used for their flavor-enhancement characteristics and for their medicinal properties. In Benin, scientific research on spices is scarce, despite their importance in the local population's daily needs. This study investigated the diversity of wild spices and documented the associated traditional knowledge that can be used for their valuation, domestication, and sustainable management in the Sudano-Guinean Zone of Benin.

METHODS

Data were collected during field expeditions using semi-structured interviews in ten localities across the three phytodistricts of the zone. Species richness and Shannon's diversity index were estimated using species accumulation curves. Use report (UR), cultural importance, use value (UV) index, and informant consensus factor (F_ic) were used to assess traditional knowledge on wild species, their local importance, and informants' agreement among sociolinguistic groups. Priority wild spices were finally identified using an approach combining eight criteria (native status, economic value, ethnobotanical value, global distribution, national distribution, in-situ and ex-situ conservation status, legislation, and threats assessment) in four prioritization methods (point scoring procedure, point scoring procedure with weighting, compound ranking system, and binomial ranking system).

RESULTS

A total of 14 species, belonging to 12 genera and 9 families, were inventoried. The most prominent families were Zingiberaceae (21.43%), Annonaceae (21.43%), and Rutaceae (14.29%). More than 200 specific uses were reported, with the Tchabè people holding the greatest level of knowledge (70 uses; UR = 5.70 ± 0.33). The culturally most important spices differed among sociolinguistic groups. Most of the informants agree on the use of the species among (F_ic = 0.72-0.98) and across the considered use categories (F_ic = 0.88-0.99). The highest UV were registered for Aframomum alboviolaceum (UV = 0.93), Lippia multiflora (UV = 0.76), and Aframomum angustifolium (UV = 0.18). Overall, people perceived wild spices as declining due to agriculture, grazing, and drought. Five species, A. alboviolaceum, L. multiflora, Monodora tenuifolia, Xylopia aethiopica, and Z. zanthoxyloides, were the most prioritized for conservation.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides information relevant for the implementation of conservation and domestication actions of wild spices in Benin. Priority species could be integrated into traditional agroforestry systems (e.g., home gardens). However, for this to be effective, further research should be undertaken on morphological and genetic diversity and propagation methods of priority wild spices.