The financing need for expanded maternity protection in Indonesia

Knowledge, understanding and perceptions of key stakeholders on the maternity protection available and accessible to female domestic workers in South Africa

Maternity protection enables women to combine reproductive and productive roles. Domestic workers are a vulnerable group due to heterogeneous non-standard employment relationships and are unlikely to have access to comprehensive maternity protection. This study aimed to explore the knowledge, understanding and perceptions of key stakeholders in government, trade unions, non-governmental organisations and other relevant organisations of the maternity protection entitlements that should be available and accessible to female domestic workers in South Africa. This qualitative cross-sectional study included in-depth interviews with fifteen stakeholders working in different sectors in South Africa and mainly at a national level involved in maternity protection availability and access. Results show that stakeholders appear to have limited understanding of comprehensive maternity protection. Many challenges related to accessing cash payments while on maternity leave were described and suggestions were provided for how this could be improved. Participants described how certain labour-related characteristics unique to the domestic work sector were barriers in accessing maternity protection. Ensuring greater awareness of all components of maternity protection and improving implementation of existing labour legislation intended to guarantee maternity protection for non-standard workers in South Africa is important to improve access to maternity protection for this vulnerable group. Improved access to maternity protection would contribute to optimal maternal and new-born health and ensure economic security for women around the time of childbirth.

The financial need of feeding infants for the first six months of life in West Java Province of Indonesia and the implications of socioeconomic and mental health factors

BACKGROUND

In Indonesia, nearly half of all children aged less than six months were not exclusively breastfed in 2017. This study aimed to compare the cost of providing direct or indirect exclusive breastfeeding 0-6 months, partial exclusive breastfeeding and commercial milk formula only. This study also assessed the maternal socioeconomic and mental health factors to providing exclusive breastfeeding.

METHODS

Data were collected in 2018 via a cross-sectional survey of 456 mothers in Bandung City and Purwakarta District, West Java Province, Indonesia, who had children aged less than six months. We used micro-costing to calculate the cost of productivity, equipment, supplies, and training of mothers when providing direct exclusive breastfeeding, indirect exclusive breastfeeding, partial exclusive breastfeeding (a mix of breastfeed and commercial milk formula), and infant formula/commercial milk formula only. Logistic regression was used to determine the impact of several independent variables, including mother's level of depression, on exclusive breastfeeding.

RESULTS

To provide direct exclusive breastfeeding, the cost per mother in the first six months is US$81.08, which is less expensive than indirect exclusive breastfeeding (US$171.15), partial exclusive breastfeeding (US$487.8) and commercial milk formula (US$494.9). We also found that education and age are associated with the decision to provide direct exclusive breastfeeding. Mothers who work will most likely provide indirect exclusive breastfeeding, commercial milk formula, or partial breastfeeding as opposed to direct exclusive breastfeeding. Finally, although severe depression symptoms have a positive relationship with the decision to provide commercial milk formula over direct exclusive breastfeeding, the evidence here is not strong.

CONCLUSIONS

The total cost of providing only commercial milk formula is 6-times higher than the cost of direct exclusive breastfeeding. The presence of severe depression symptoms is positively related to mothers opting for other feeding methods aside of direct exclusive breastfeeding and indirect exclusive breastfeeding. This study shows that direct exclusive breastfeeding is economically preferable to other methods, supports policies to reduce the time cost of exclusive breastfeeding (e.g., paid maternity leave and maternal cash transfers), and addresses the importance of mother's mental health to ensure successful breastfeeding.

The political economy of infant and young child feeding: confronting corporate power, overcoming structural barriers, and accelerating progress

Despite increasing evidence about the value and importance of breastfeeding, less than half of the world's infants and young children (aged 0-36 months) are breastfed as recommended. This Series paper examines the social, political, and economic reasons for this problem. First, this paper highlights the power of the commercial milk formula (CMF) industry to commodify the feeding of infants and young children; influence policy at both national and international levels in ways that grow and sustain CMF markets; and externalise the social, environmental, and economic costs of CMF. Second, this paper examines how breastfeeding is undermined by economic policies and systems that ignore the value of care work by women, including breastfeeding, and by the inadequacy of maternity rights protection across the world, especially for poorer women. Third, this paper presents three reasons why health systems often do not provide adequate breastfeeding protection, promotion, and support. These reasons are the gendered and biomedical power systems that deny women-centred and culturally appropriate care; the economic and ideological factors that accept, and even encourage, commercial influence and conflicts of interest; and the fiscal and economic policies that leave governments with insufficient funds to adequately protect, promote, and support breastfeeding. We outline six sets of wide-ranging social, political, and economic reforms required to overcome these deeply embedded commercial and structural barriers to breastfeeding.

Pregnancy and working conditions in the hospital sector: a scoping review

The different areas and work environments in the hospital sector have a complex set of occupational risk factors that can negatively impact the health of pregnant workers. Illness among this workforce results in sick leave due to work-related diseases and pregnancy, with high absenteeism. The main objective of this study was to review the available literature on the gestational and occupational risks to which pregnant health workers are exposed, causes of absenteeism, and issues related to maternity protection and work in the hospital sector. The authors used online databases to identify papers published in English from 2015 to 2020, based on the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews and three steps of Snowballing. The study reviewed 18 peer-reviewed scientific articles that address pregnancy, work, absenteeism, and maternity protection. Most studies used a quantitative approach (12) and cohort studies in particular (6). The distribution of articles by themes was as follows: pregnancy, health and safety at work (11); pregnancy, health conditions, and absenteeism (13); and work and maternity protection (10). Some inferences were possible from the themes raised. However, the results revealed a gap and the need for specific studies for healthcare workers in the hospital sector, focusing on maternity. This review contributes to more in-depth studies on developing programs, actions, and legislation to protect maternity in hospital working environments.

Employers' perceptions of breastfeeding practice of employed mothers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

The Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey 2019 shows that 59% of children are exclusively breastfed for the first 6 months of life, then the rate decreases sharply with age. Nearly half of the Ethiopian labor force (46%) is comprised of women. This is encouraging since women's employment is one way of ensuring women's empowerment. However, various factors related to employment make it one of the commonly mentioned factors contributing for the low prevalence of breastfeeding. Hence, there needs to be a conducive work environment that accommodates maternal needs to not fall back from empowerment and to improve breastfeeding practice. There are not many studies in Ethiopia that focus on work environment in relation with employers' experience and their perception of breastfeeding of employed mothers. Therefore, this study aims to explore employers' experience and perception of employed mothers' breastfeeding experience in different working environments in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

METHODS

A qualitative study design using a descriptive phenomenology strategy was employed in this study and purposive sampling technique was used to recruit study participants. Data was collected between December 2016 and May 2017 in Addis Ababa city from 10 employers from private, governmental and non-governmental institutions through an in-depth interview. Thematic data analysis was performed where collected data was organized, coded and categorized into themes to give meaningful contributions to answering the research questions.

RESULTS

Understanding breastfeeding, current maternity leave, perception of breastfeeding supporting the conditions and mother-friendly work environment were the themes generated after analysis. Almost all employers in this study recognized the importance of breastfeeding despite their different work environments and they also acknowledged the importance of making the working environment mother-friendly for stability and motivation of employed mothers.

CONCLUSIONS

Providing mothers with a friendly environment is understood as a positive thing by employers. The current maternity leave of 3 months has low acceptance and both onsite childcare center and six-month maternity leave are believed to help in creating a mother-friendly work environment despite their pros and cons.

Breastfeeding and breastmilk substitute use and feeding motivations among mothers in Bandung City, Indonesia

Suboptimal breastfeeding is common in Indonesia, with only half of infants 0–5 months of age exclusively breastfed and feeding of breastmilk substitutes (BMS) highly prevalent among infants and toddlers. Various factors influence these feeding practices, including social norms, limited health system support and BMS manufacturer marketing practices. This cross‐sectional survey aimed to identify the prevalence of breastfeeding and BMS feeding among children aged 0–35 months, explore socio‐demographic characteristics and motivating factors associated with these feeding behaviours and identify the prevalence of mothers' exposure to BMS promotions. Indonesian mothers of children <3 years of age (n = 595) were interviewed in Bandung City health facilities using structured questionnaires. Although all children were ever breastfed, half of children across all age groups received BMS in the previous day. Maternal employment outside the home and insufficient breastmilk production were associated with BMS use. The most important motivational factors for feeding BMS were perceived benefits for growth, intelligence and immunity. Despite Indonesian legislation restricting some BMS marketing, 93% of mothers reported observing a BMS promotion outside the health system, with television, social media and newspapers as the most common sources. Half of mothers (43%) reported observing a BMS promotion within the health system, and half (46%) reported receiving recommendations from health workers to use BMS. Such high prevalence of BMS marketing may be influencing caregivers' feeding choices; stronger national legislation and implementation of laws are needed to ensure mothers' ability to make feeding choices free from manufacturer influence.

The financing need of equitable provision of paid maternal leave in the informal sector in Indonesia: a comparison of estimation methods

Background

Providing an enabling environment for breastfeeding is hampered by the inequitable implementation of paid maternity leave, primarily due to perceived or actual financial costs. To estimate the real cost of paid maternity leave requires using reliable methods. We compared methods utilized in two recent studies in Indonesia. Study A estimated the financial need of providing paid maternity leave in the formal sector with a 10-year forecast at 21% coverage of eligible mothers, while study B estimated similar costs for the informal sector at 100% coverage annually. Results are critical for guiding future application of either method to inform paid maternity leave policies.

Methods

We compared number of covered mothers working informally, total annual cost, and cost per mother. We modified some parameters used in study A (method A) to be similar to study B (method B) for comparison, namely the period of estimate (annual), coverage (100%), estimate of women potentially breastfeeding, exchange rate, female labor force participation rate, the percentage of women working in the informal sector, and adding administration cost.

Results

The methods differ in determining the number of mothers working in the informal sector who gave birth, the minimum wage as unit cost, and administrative cost. Both studies estimated the cost at various lengths of leave period. Method A requires more macro (e.g. national/regional) level data, while method B involves (e.g. individual) micro level data. We compared the results of method A with method B, respectively: 1) number of covered mothers working informally were 1,425,589 vs. 1,147,204; 2) total annual costs including administrative costs were US$650,230,167 vs. US$633,942,726, and; 3) cost/mother was US$456 vs US$553.

Conclusion

Certain flexibilities can be applied to both methods, namely using parameters specific to respective regions (e.g. provincial level parameters), flexible period of analysis, and the use of administrative cost. In a setting where micro data is scarce and not easily accessible, method A provides a feasible approach, while method B will be most appropriate if suitable micro data is available. Future comparison studies in other settings are needed to provide further evidence on the strengths and weaknesses of both methods.

The yearly financing need of providing paid maternity leave in the informal sector in Indonesia

BACKGROUND

The economic cost of not breastfeeding in Indonesia is estimated at US$1.5-9.4 billion annually, the highest in South East Asia. Half of the 33.6 million working women of reproductive age (WRA) in Indonesia (15-49 years) are informal employees, meaning they are working as casual workers or they are self-employed (small scale business) and assisted by unpaid/family worker(s). No specific maternity protection entitlements are currently available for WRA working informally in Indonesia. This study aims to estimate the financing need of providing maternity leave cash transfer (MCT) for WRA working in the informal sector in Indonesia.

METHOD

The costing methodology used is the adapted version of the World Bank methodology by Vilar-Compte et al, following pre-set steps to estimate costs using national secondary data. We used the 2018 Indonesian National Socio-Economic Survey to estimate the number of women working informally who gave birth within the last year. The population covered, potential cash transfer's unitary cost, the incremental coverage of the policy in terms of time and coverage, and the administrative costs were used to estimate the cost of MCT for the informal sector.

RESULT

At 100% coverage for 13 weeks of leave, the yearly financing need of MCT ranged from US$175million (US$152/woman) to US$669million (US$583/woman). The share of the yearly financing need did not exceed 0.5% of Indonesian Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

CONCLUSIONS

The yearly financing need of providing MCT for eligible WRA working in the informal sector is economically attractive as it amounts to less than 0.5% of GDP nominal of Indonesia. While such a program would be perceived as a marked increase from current public health spending at the onset, such an investment could substantially contribute to the success of breastfeeding and substantial corresponding public health savings given that more than half of working Indonesian WRA are employed in the informal sector. Such policies should be further explored while taking into consideration realistic budget constraints and implementation capacity.

A systematic review of costing studies for implementing and scaling-up breastfeeding interventions: what do we know and what are the gaps?

Despite the well-established evidence that breastfeeding improves maternal and child health outcomes, global rates of exclusive breastfeeding remain low. Cost estimates can inform stakeholders about the financial resources needed to scale up interventions to ultimately improve breastfeeding outcomes in low-, middle- and high-income countries. To inform the development of comprehensive costing frameworks, this systematic review aimed to (1) identify costing studies for implementing or scaling-up breastfeeding interventions, (2) assess the quality of identified costing studies and (3) examine the availability of cost data to identify gaps that need to be addressed through future research. Peer-reviewed and grey literature were systematically searched using a combination of index terms and relevant text words related to cost and the following breastfeeding interventions: breastfeeding counselling, maternity leave, the World Health Organization International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes, the Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative, media promotion, workplace support and pro-breastfeeding social policies. Data were extracted after having established inter-rater reliability among the first two authors. The quality of studies was assessed using an eight-item checklist for key costing study attributes. Forty-five studies met the inclusion criteria, with the majority including costs for breastfeeding counselling and paid maternity leave. Most cost analyses included key costing study attributes; however, major weaknesses among the studies were the lack of clarity on costing perspectives and not accounting for the uncertainty of reported cost estimates. Costing methodologies varied substantially, standardized costing frameworks are needed for reliably estimating the costs of implementing and scaling-up breastfeeding interventions at local-, national- or global-levels.

Costs of maternity leave to support breastfeeding; Brazil, Ghana and Mexico

Objective

To develop a method to assess the cost of extending the duration of maternity leave for formally-employed women at the national level and apply it in Brazil, Ghana and Mexico.

Methods

We adapted a World Bank costing method into a five-step method to estimate the costs of extending the length of maternity leave mandates. Our method used the unit cost of maternity leave based on working women’s weekly wages; the number of additional weeks of maternity leave to be analysed for a given year; and the weighted population of women of reproductive and legal working age in a given country in that year. We weighted the population by the probability of having a baby that year among women in formal employment, according to individual characteristics. We applied nationally representative cross-sectional data from fertility, employment and population surveys to estimate the costs of maternity leave for mothers employed in the formal sector in Brazil, Ghana and Mexico for periods from 12 weeks up to 26 weeks, the WHO target for exclusive breastfeeding.

Findings

We estimated that 640 742 women in Brazil, 33 869 in Ghana and 288 655 in Mexico would require formal maternity leave annually. The median weekly cost of extending maternity leave for formally working women was purchasing power parity international dollars (PPP$) 195.07 per woman in Brazil, PPP$ 109.68 in Ghana and PPP$ 168.83 in Mexico.

Conclusion

Our costing method could facilitate evidence-based policy decisions across countries to improve maternity protection benefits and support breastfeeding.