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Bin Shahari MS, Tiekink ERT, Dolzhenko AV. One‐Pot Multicomponent Synthesis ofBis(diamino‐1,3,5‐triazines) under Microwave Irradiation. ChemistrySelect 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202203038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Syafiq Bin Shahari
- School of Pharmacy Monash University Malaysia Jalan Lagoon Selatan, Bandar Sunway Selangor Darul Ehsan 47500 Malaysia
| | - Edward R. T. Tiekink
- Research Centre for Crystalline Materials School of Medical and Life Sciences Sunway University 5 Jalan Universiti, Bandar Sunway Selangor Darul Ehsan 47500 Malaysia
| | - Anton V. Dolzhenko
- School of Pharmacy Monash University Malaysia Jalan Lagoon Selatan, Bandar Sunway Selangor Darul Ehsan 47500 Malaysia
- Curtin Medical School Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute Faculty of Health Sciences Curtin University GPO Box U1987 Perth, Western Bentley 6845 Australia
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2
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Activities of curcumin-related compounds in two cell lines persistently infected with different prion strains. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2022; 1866:130094. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2022.130094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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3
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Uliassi E, Nikolic L, Bolognesi ML, Legname G. Therapeutic strategies for identifying small molecules against prion diseases. Cell Tissue Res 2022; 392:337-347. [PMID: 34989851 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-021-03573-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative disorders, for which there are no effective therapeutic and diagnostic agents. The main pathological hallmark has been identified as conformational changes of the cellular isoform prion protein (PrPC) to a misfolded isoform of the prion protein (PrPSc). Targeting PrPC and its conversion to PrPSc is still the central dogma in prion drug discovery, particularly in in silico and in vitro screening endeavors, leading to the identification of many small molecules with therapeutic potential. Nonetheless, multiple pathological targets are critically involved in the intricate pathogenesis of prion diseases. In this context, multi-target-directed ligands (MTDLs) emerge as valuable therapeutic approach for their potential to effectively counteract the complex etiopathogenesis by simultaneously modulating multiple targets. In addition, diagnosis occurs late in the disease process, and consequently a successful therapeutic intervention cannot be provided. In this respect, small molecule theranostics, which combine imaging and therapeutic properties, showed tremendous potential to cure and diagnose in vivo prion diseases. Herein, we review the major advances in prion drug discovery, from anti-prion small molecules identified by means of in silico and in vitro screening approaches to two rational strategies, namely MTDLs and theranostics, that have led to the identification of novel compounds with an expanded anti-prion profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Uliassi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Via Belmeloro 6, Bologna, Italy
| | - Lea Nikolic
- Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore Di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | - Maria Laura Bolognesi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Via Belmeloro 6, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Legname
- Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore Di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste, Italy.
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4
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Rodrigues AD, Marcotte N, Quignard F, Deabate S, Robitzer M, Lerner DA. Original synthesis and spectroscopic study of thiophene triazine derivatives with enhanced luminescence properties. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2020; 227:117708. [PMID: 31703995 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2019.117708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A straightforward access to π-conjugated oligothiophenes bearing amino-rich groups was developed. Palladium-catalyzed C-H arylation applied in the main step of the synthesis allowed to couple 2-thiophenecarbonitriles and aryl bromides with moderate to excellent yields (35-93%). Then, to improve their basic fluorescence properties, these compounds were transformed into their 2,4-diamino-1,3,5-triazine derivatives, also with good to excellent yields (74-98%). UV-Visible absorption and fluorescence studies identified a strongly emissive molecule (fluorescence quantum yield: ΦF = 0.78 ± 0.05), which could find use in sensors for applications in biology and in material chemistry. We observed an antagonistic effect in the spectroscopic properties of oligothiophenes bearing 2,4-diamino-1,3,5-triazine, resulting in improved absorptive and emissive properties for more constrained structures having shorter oligothiophenes chains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alysson Duarte Rodrigues
- ICGM, Univ Montpellier, ENSCM, CNRS, Montpellier, France; Ecole National Supérieure de Chimie de Montpellier, 240 Avenue du Professeur E. Jeanbrau, 34296, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Nathalie Marcotte
- ICGM, Univ Montpellier, ENSCM, CNRS, Montpellier, France; Ecole National Supérieure de Chimie de Montpellier, 240 Avenue du Professeur E. Jeanbrau, 34296, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | | | - Stefano Deabate
- Institut Européen des Membranes, IEM - UMR, 5635, ENSCM, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France; Ecole National Supérieure de Chimie de Montpellier, 240 Avenue du Professeur E. Jeanbrau, 34296, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Mike Robitzer
- ICGM, Univ Montpellier, ENSCM, CNRS, Montpellier, France; Ecole National Supérieure de Chimie de Montpellier, 240 Avenue du Professeur E. Jeanbrau, 34296, Montpellier Cedex 5, France.
| | - Dan A Lerner
- ICGM, Univ Montpellier, ENSCM, CNRS, Montpellier, France; Ecole National Supérieure de Chimie de Montpellier, 240 Avenue du Professeur E. Jeanbrau, 34296, Montpellier Cedex 5, France.
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5
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Moda F, Bolognesi ML, Legname G. Novel screening approaches for human prion diseases drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2019; 14:983-993. [PMID: 31271065 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2019.1637851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: Human prion diseases are rare fatal neurodegenerative diseases caused by the misfolding and aggregation of the prion protein in the form of infectious prions. So far, these diseases are incurable. One of the major difficulties in identifying suitable drugs is the availability of robust preclinical screening methods. All molecules identified have been screened using cell-based assays and in vivo murine models. The existence of a continuum of prion strains has hampered the identification of efficacious molecules modulating the progression of different forms of the disease. Areas covered: The advent of new in vitro screening methodologies is allowing for novel strategies to develop new compounds that could interfere with a broad range of diseases. In particular, two innovative techniques named Real Time Quaking Induced Conversion (RT-QuIC) and Protein Misfolding Cyclic Amplification (PMCA) have opened new venues for testing compounds in a rapid a reproducible way. These are discussed within. Expert opinion: For human prion diseases, one major hurdle has been a well-defined screening methodology. In other animal species, cell-based assays have been employed that could replicate animal prions indefinitely. Such a tool for human prion diseases is still missing. Therefore, the advent of RT-QuIC and PMCA has proven instrumental to overcome this limitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Moda
- Division of Neurology 5 - Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta , Milano , Italy
| | - Maria Laura Bolognesi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna , Bologna , Italy
| | - Giuseppe Legname
- Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA) , Trieste , Italy
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6
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Chukwu JE, Congdon EE, Sigurdsson EM, Kong XP. Structural characterization of monoclonal antibodies targeting C-terminal Ser 404 region of phosphorylated tau protein. MAbs 2019; 11:477-488. [PMID: 30794086 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2019.1574530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeting tau with immunotherapies is currently the most common approach taken in clinical trials of patients with Alzheimer's disease. The most prominent pathological feature of tau is its hyperphosphorylation, which may cause the protein to aggregate into toxic assemblies that collectively lead to neurodegeneration. Of the phospho-epitopes, the region around Ser396/Ser404 has received particular attention for therapeutic targeting because of its prominence and stability in diseased tissue. Herein, we present the antigen-binding fragment (Fab)/epitope complex structures of three different monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that target the pSer404 tau epitope region. Most notably, these structures reveal an antigen conformation similar to a previously described pathogenic tau epitope, pSer422, which was shown to have a β-strand structure that may be linked to the seeding core in tau oligomers. In addition, we have previously reported on the similarly ordered conformation observed in a pSer396 epitope, which is in tandem with pSer404. Our data are the first Fab structures of mAbs bound to this epitope region of the tau protein and support the existence of proteopathic tau conformations stabilized by specific phosphorylation events that are viable targets for immune modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica E Chukwu
- a Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Pharmacology , New York University School of Medicine , New York , NY , USA
| | - Erin E Congdon
- b Departments of Neuroscience & Physiology, & Psychiatry , New York University School of Medicine , New York , NY , USA
| | - Einar M Sigurdsson
- b Departments of Neuroscience & Physiology, & Psychiatry , New York University School of Medicine , New York , NY , USA
| | - Xiang-Peng Kong
- a Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Pharmacology , New York University School of Medicine , New York , NY , USA
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Teruya K, Nishizawa K, Oguma A, Sakasegawa Y, Kitamoto T, Doh-Ura K. Intermolecular crosslinking of abnormal prion protein is efficiently induced by a primuline-sensitized photoreaction. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2018; 1863:384-394. [PMID: 30447252 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In prion diseases, infectious pathogenic particles that are composed of abnormal prion proteins (PrPSc) accumulate in the brain. PrPSc is biochemically characterized by its protease-resistance core (PrPres), but its structural features have not been fully elucidated. Here, we report that primuline, a fluorescent dye with photosensitization activity, dramatically enhances UV-irradiation-induced SDS-resistant PrPSc/res oligomer formation that can be detected by immunoblot analysis of prion-infected materials. This oligomer formation occurs specifically with PrPSc/res but not with normal prion protein, and it was demonstrated using purified PrPSc/res as well as unpurified materials. The oligomer formation proceeded in both primuline-dose- and UV irradiation time-dependent manners. Treatment with urea or formic acid did not break oligomers into monomers. Neither did the presence of aromatic amino acids modify oligomer formation. Analysis with a panel of anti-prion protein antibodies showed that the antibodies against the N-terminal region of PrPres were less reactive in the dimer than the monomer. These findings suggest that the primuline-sensitized photoreaction enhances intermolecular crosslinking of PrPSc/res molecules at a hydrophobic area of the N-terminal region of PrPres. In the screening of other compounds, photoreactive compounds such as luciferin exhibited a similar but lower activity with respect to oligomer formation than primuline. The enhanced photoreaction with these compounds will be useful for evaluating the structural features of PrPSc/res, especially the interactions between PrPSc/res molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenta Teruya
- Department of Neurochemistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Keiko Nishizawa
- Department of Neurochemistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Ayumi Oguma
- Department of Neurochemistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yuji Sakasegawa
- Department of Neurochemistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Tetsuyuki Kitamoto
- Department of Neurological Science, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Katsumi Doh-Ura
- Department of Neurochemistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan.
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8
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Low doses of bioherbicide favour prion aggregation and propagation in vivo. Sci Rep 2018; 8:8023. [PMID: 29795181 PMCID: PMC5966510 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-25966-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Public concerns over the use of synthetic pesticides are growing since many studies have shown their impact on human health. A new environmental movement in occidental countries promoting an organic agriculture favours the rebirth of botanical pesticides. These products confer an effective alternative to chemical pesticides such as glyphosate. Among the biopesticides, the α-terthienyls found in the roots of Tagetes species, are powerful broad-spectrum pesticides. We found that an α-terthienyl analogue with herbicidal properties, called A6, triggers resistant SDS oligomers of the pathogenic prion protein PrPSc (rSDS-PrPSc) in cells. Our main question is to determine if we can induce those rSDS-PrPSc oligomers in vitro and in vivo, and their impact on prion aggregation and propagation. Using wild-type mice challenged with prions, we showed that A6 accelerates or slows down prion disease depending on the concentration used. At 5 mg/kg, A6 is worsening the pathology with a faster accumulation of PrPSc, reminiscent to soluble toxic rSDS-PrPSc oligomers. In contrast, at 10 and 20 mg/kg of A6, prion disease occurred later, with less PrPSc deposits and with rSDS-PrPSc oligomers in the brain reminiscent to non-toxic aggregates. Our results are bringing new openings regarding the impact of biopesticides in prion and prion-like diseases.
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Perrier V, Imberdis T, Lafon PA, Cefis M, Wang Y, Huetter E, Arnaud JD, Alvarez-Martinez T, Le Guern N, Maquart G, Lagrost L, Desrumaux C. Plasma cholesterol level determines in vivo prion propagation. J Lipid Res 2017; 58:1950-1961. [PMID: 28765208 PMCID: PMC5625119 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m073718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Revised: 07/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies are fatal neurodegenerative diseases with an urgent need for therapeutic and prophylactic strategies. At the time when the blood-mediated transmission of prions was demonstrated, in vitro studies indicated a high binding affinity of the scrapie prion protein (PrPSc) with apoB-containing lipoproteins, i.e., the main carriers of cholesterol in human blood. The aim of the present study was to explore the relationship between circulating cholesterol-containing lipoproteins and the pathogenicity of prions in vivo. We showed that, in mice with a genetically engineered deficiency for the plasma lipid transporter, phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP), abnormally low circulating cholesterol concentrations were associated with a significant prolongation of survival time after intraperitoneal inoculation of the 22L prion strain. Moreover, when circulating cholesterol levels rose after feeding PLTP-deficient mice a lipid-enriched diet, a significant reduction in survival time of mice together with a marked increase in the accumulation rate of PrPSc deposits in their brain were observed. Our results suggest that the circulating cholesterol level is a determinant of prion propagation in vivo and that cholesterol-lowering strategies might be a successful therapeutic approach for patients suffering from prion diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Véronique Perrier
- Université Montpellier and Inserm U1198, Montpellier, F-34095 France and EPHE, Paris, F-75007 France
| | - Thibaud Imberdis
- Université Montpellier and Inserm U1198, Montpellier, F-34095 France and EPHE, Paris, F-75007 France
| | - Pierre-André Lafon
- Université Montpellier and Inserm U1198, Montpellier, F-34095 France and EPHE, Paris, F-75007 France
| | - Marina Cefis
- Université Montpellier and Inserm U1198, Montpellier, F-34095 France and EPHE, Paris, F-75007 France
| | - Yunyun Wang
- Université Montpellier and Inserm U1198, Montpellier, F-34095 France and EPHE, Paris, F-75007 France.,Cellular Signaling Laboratory, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Elisabeth Huetter
- Université Montpellier and Inserm U1198, Montpellier, F-34095 France and EPHE, Paris, F-75007 France
| | - Jacques-Damien Arnaud
- Etablissement Confiné d'Expérimentation A3/L3, CECEMA, US009 Biocampus, UMS 3426, Université Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34095 France
| | - Teresa Alvarez-Martinez
- Etablissement Confiné d'Expérimentation A3/L3, CECEMA, US009 Biocampus, UMS 3426, Université Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34095 France
| | - Naig Le Guern
- INSERM, LNC UMR866, F-21000 Dijon, France and LNC UMR866, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France.,LipSTIC LabEx, Fondation de Coopération Scientifique Bourgogne-Franche Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Guillaume Maquart
- INSERM, LNC UMR866, F-21000 Dijon, France and LNC UMR866, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France.,LipSTIC LabEx, Fondation de Coopération Scientifique Bourgogne-Franche Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Laurent Lagrost
- INSERM, LNC UMR866, F-21000 Dijon, France and LNC UMR866, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France.,LipSTIC LabEx, Fondation de Coopération Scientifique Bourgogne-Franche Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France.,University Hospital of Dijon, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Catherine Desrumaux
- Université Montpellier and Inserm U1198, Montpellier, F-34095 France and EPHE, Paris, F-75007 France .,LipSTIC LabEx, Fondation de Coopération Scientifique Bourgogne-Franche Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France
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10
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Imberdis T, Robitzer M, Perrier V. Trapping the oligomers: new promises in neurosciences. Oncotarget 2017; 8:5656-5657. [PMID: 28055951 PMCID: PMC5351566 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.13800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2016] [Accepted: 12/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mike Robitzer
- Université Montpellier, MMDN, Montpellier, EPHE, Paris, France
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11
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Nasri A, Valverde AJ, Roche DB, Desrumaux C, Clair P, Beyrem H, Chaloin L, Ghysen A, Perrier V. Neurotoxicity of a Biopesticide Analog on Zebrafish Larvae at Nanomolar Concentrations. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:ijms17122137. [PMID: 27999363 PMCID: PMC5187937 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17122137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Revised: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the ever-increasing role of pesticides in modern agriculture, their deleterious effects are still underexplored. Here we examine the effect of A6, a pesticide derived from the naturally-occurring α-terthienyl, and structurally related to the endocrine disrupting pesticides anilinopyrimidines, on living zebrafish larvae. We show that both A6 and an anilinopyrimidine, cyprodinyl, decrease larval survival and affect central neurons at micromolar concentrations. Focusing on a superficial and easily observable sensory system, the lateral line system, we found that defects in axonal and sensory cell regeneration can be observed at much lower doses, in the nanomolar range. We also show that A6 accumulates preferentially in lateral line neurons and hair cells. We examined whether A6 affects the expression of putative target genes, and found that genes involved in apoptosis/cell proliferation are down-regulated, as well as genes reflecting estrogen receptor activation, consistent with previous reports that anilinopyrimidines act as endocrine disruptors. On the other hand, canonical targets of endocrine signaling are not affected, suggesting that the neurotoxic effect of A6 may be due to the binding of this compound to a recently identified, neuron-specific estrogen receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Nasri
- U1198 MMDN (Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Inserm (National Institute for Health and Medical Research), 34095 Montpellier, France.
- BioCampus, University of Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier, France.
- EPHE (Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes), 75007 Paris, France.
- Laboratory of Environment Biomonitoring, Faculty of Sciences of Bizerta, University of Carthage, 7021 Zarzouna, Tunisia.
| | - Audrey J Valverde
- U1198 MMDN (Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Inserm (National Institute for Health and Medical Research), 34095 Montpellier, France.
- BioCampus, University of Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier, France.
- EPHE (Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes), 75007 Paris, France.
| | - Daniel B Roche
- IBC (Computational Biology Institute), CNRS (National Center for Scientific Research), University of Montpellier, 860 rue Saint Priest, 34095 Montpellier, France.
- CRBM (Research Center for Cell Biology in Montpellier), UMR 5237, CNRS, 1919 route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France.
| | - Catherine Desrumaux
- U1198 MMDN (Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Inserm (National Institute for Health and Medical Research), 34095 Montpellier, France.
- BioCampus, University of Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier, France.
- EPHE (Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes), 75007 Paris, France.
| | - Philippe Clair
- MGX (Montpellier GenomiX), BioCampus, University of Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier, France.
| | - Hamouda Beyrem
- CRBM (Research Center for Cell Biology in Montpellier), UMR 5237, CNRS, 1919 route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France.
| | - Laurent Chaloin
- CPBS (Center for Study of Pathogens and Biotechnologies for Health), FRE 3689, CNRS, University of Montpellier, 1919 route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France.
| | - Alain Ghysen
- U1198 MMDN (Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Inserm (National Institute for Health and Medical Research), 34095 Montpellier, France.
- BioCampus, University of Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier, France.
- EPHE (Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes), 75007 Paris, France.
| | - Véronique Perrier
- U1198 MMDN (Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Inserm (National Institute for Health and Medical Research), 34095 Montpellier, France.
- BioCampus, University of Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier, France.
- EPHE (Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes), 75007 Paris, France.
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