Long-term follow-up on recovery, return to use and sporting activity: a retrospective study of 236 operated colic horses in Finland (2006-2012)

Colic incidence, risk factors, and therapeutic management in a working horse population in Tuban, Indonesia

Background and Aim

Colic is the primary problem affecting equestrian care worldwide. The primary cause of colic is digestive diseases; however, they can also affect organs from different systems in the abdominal region. In addition to a prior history of the disease and its treatment, risk factors may be assessed to determine the etiology of the disease in horses without or with a history of colic. This study aimed to present a summary of the incidence, risk factors, and medical procedures for colic in horses.

Materials and Methods

Based on owner reports, 223 horses in Tuban, Indonesia, suspected of having colic were investigated. During the investigation of clinical parameters, investigators went door-to-door with interested horse owners to gather information about potential risk factors related to equine colic. Information on horses diagnosed with colic was obtained from the medical records of treatment. A Chi-square test was used to investigate the potential association between the risk factors, medical protocol, and the outcome of colic in horses.

Results

Of the 187 cases, spasmodic colic was the most common (48.13%), but 17 (9.09%) had no definitive diagnosis. Poor body condition scores (χ2 = 58.73; p < 0.001), wheat bran feeding (χ2 = 26.79; p < 0.001), concentrate (χ2 = 10.66; p < 0.01), less access to water (χ2 = 128.24; p < 0.001), recurrence of colic (χ2 = 85.64; p < 0.001), no deworming program (χ2 = 54.76; p < 0.001), the presence of gastrointestinal parasites (χ2 = 56.79; p < 0.001), stressed physical activity (χ2 = 28.53; p < 0.001), and summer season (χ2 = 7.83; p < 0.01) were the risk factors for colic. We further reported that 185 (98.93%) patients who received the following medical interventions recovered: injection of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs was necessary, Vitamin B complex (χ2 = 39.98; p < 0.001), fluid therapy (χ2 = 92.99; p < 0.001), and gastric intubation (χ2 = 4.09; p < 0.05).

Conclusion

The importance of colic was demonstrated in 187 (83.86%) of the 223 horses investigated in Tuban, Indonesia, documented. In this study, recommendations for medical procedures when colic risk factors have been determined are presented.

A cross-sectional study of colic and rate of return to racing in Thoroughbreds at Seoul Racecourse in Korea between 2010 and 2020

BACKGROUND

The incidence of colic and the outcomes of colic surgery have not been surveyed in racetracks in Korea.

OBJECTIVES

This study examined the incidence, mortality, and case fatality of colic and investigated the effects of age and sex after an exploratory celiotomy on the long-term survival rate (return to racing), subsequent racing performance, and career longevity.

METHODS

The incidence, mortality, and case fatalities of colic were examined over an 11-year period. The records of 40 horses that had undergone a celiotomy, after participating in at least one race and 75 race-matched control horses were analyzed. The racing performance and career length of the horses that returned to racing post-surgery were compared with a control group.

RESULTS

The annual incidence, fatality rate of colic, and annual mortality rate at Seoul Racecourse were 6.5, 2.8 per 100 horse-years, and 0.2 deaths cases per 100 horse-years, respectively. Of the 40 horses that underwent colic surgery, 26 (65%) returned to racing. The likelihood of returning to racing decreased with increasing age of the horses, and geldings had a lower probability of returning. While the performance in the five preoperative races between the two groups was not significantly different, a significant decrease in racing performance was observed after the surgery date (p < 0.01). Horses that underwent colic surgery did not show a significant decrease in career length.

CONCLUSIONS

Surgical treatment for colic at the age of three and four years had a negative impact on the racing performance. On the other hand, there was no significant difference in career longevity between the two groups.

Changes in equine intestinal stem/progenitor cell number at resection margins in cases of small intestinal strangulation

BACKGROUND

Intestinal epithelial stem cells (ISC) are responsible for epithelial regeneration and are critical to the intestine's ability to regain barrier function following injury. Evaluating ISC biomarker expression in cases of small intestinal strangulation (SIS) may provide insight into clinical progression.

OBJECTIVES

Intestinal resection margins from cases of SIS were evaluated to determine if (1) evidence of injury could be identified using histomorphometry, (2) ISC biomarker expression was decreased in the proximal resection margin compared to control and distal resection margin, and (3) the ISC biomarker expression was associated with the number of preoperative risk factors negatively related to outcome, post-operative complications, or case outcome.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

METHODS

Intestinal samples were obtained intraoperatively from resection margins of adult horses with SIS and horses euthanised for reasons unrelated to colic. Preoperative risk factors negatively related to outcome, post-operative complications, and case outcome were obtained from medical records. Horses were grouped as euthanised intraoperatively, postoperatively, or survived to discharge. Histomorphometry and immunofluorescence were performed to evaluate tissue architecture and ISC and progenitor cell number. Groups were compared using one-way ANOVA. Associations between biomarker expression and the number of preoperative risk factors and post-operative complications negatively related to outcome were determined using linear regression modelling.

RESULTS

Thirty-six cases of SIS were evaluated. Ki67+ cell counts were decreased in the proximal (mean = 15.45 cells; 95% CI = 10.27-20.63; SD = 4.17; p = 0.02) and distal resection margins (mean = 15.05; 95% CI = 8.46-21.64; SD = 4.141; p = 0.03) in horses euthanised postoperatively compared to control (mean = 23.62 cells; 95% CI = 19.42-27.83; SD = 5.883). In the distal resection margin, an increase in SOX9+ Ki67+ cells were associated with a decrease in the total number of preoperative risk factors negatively related to outcome (95% CI = 0.236-1.123; p = 0.008, SE = 0.1393).

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Small population size.

CONCLUSIONS

Proliferating cell and ISC numbers may be associated with case outcome.

Long-term outcome after colic surgery: retrospective study of 106 horses in the USA (2014-2021)

Objective

To determine long-term survival rate, defined as survival to 1 year after discharge from the hospital, and rate of return to prior athletic, breeding, or other function in horses undergoing colic surgery at the first presentation at one referral hospital in the Pacific northwest region of the United States.

Procedures

Records were reviewed for all horses that underwent colic surgery between October 2014 and October 2021. Owners of horses that survived to discharge were contacted to obtain follow-up information via internet-based questionnaire or telephone interview. The percentage of horses that survived to 1 year after discharge, rates of return to function, and complications occurring after hospital discharge were determined. The possible association of patient signalment, lesion type, and surgical procedures with long-term survival was examined with Chi-square and Fisher's exact tests. Overall satisfaction was indicated on a scale of 1 (unsatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied).

Results

Of 185 horses that underwent surgical intervention for colic and met the inclusion criteria, 134 horses recovered from anesthesia, with 106 of these recovered horses (79.1%) surviving to discharge. Of the 71 horses for which follow-up information was obtained, 61 horses survived to 1 year after discharge (long-term survival rate of 85.9%). There were no demographic, lesion type, or surgical procedure variables significantly associated with long-term survival. Prior to surgery, 59/71 horses (83.1%) were engaged in some type of athletic activity. After surgery, 44/61 horses (72.1%) were reported to be athletically active. Only one horse was reported to be retired from athletic activity as a direct result of a complication from surgery. Overall satisfaction with the decision to proceed with colic surgery was rated by all respondents as 4 or 5.

Conclusions and clinical relevance

The long-term survival for this sample of horses was similar to previously published reports of long-term survival after colic surgery. Horses that survived to hospital discharge were highly likely to remain alive and be athletically active 1 year later. There were no factors related to the signalment of the horse, the specific cause of colic, or the surgical procedures performed that were significantly associated with likelihood of survival.

Predictive Models for Equine Emergency Exploratory Laparotomy in Spain: Pre-, Intra-, and Post-Operative-Mortality-Associated Factors

The extrinsic and intrinsic characteristics of an equine population may influence the onset of gastrointestinal lesions and affect the survival rate of patients. The equine population in Spain has been the focus of a small number of studies, none of which have involved more than one surgical center. In this retrospective cohort study, we aimed to analyze the survival rate, identify the variables that influenced death, and generate multivariate models using clinical variables. Data were collected from the clinical records of two surgical referral centers in the same region, and a total of 566 horses met the inclusion criteria. The statistical analysis was divided into three parts: The first and second included logistic analysis, in order to identify the variables most closely associated with survival. The third part assessed all previous variables in terms of survival and hospitalization time, using a COX survival analysis. The main risk factors associated with intra-operative mortality were related to seasonality (winter and summer), patient age (older than 9 years), distance from the hospital, the presence of a strangulating lesion, and the bowel segment affected (small intestine). Furthermore, the main factors associated with mortality during hospitalization were the characteristics of the lesions (strangulating) and the differences between surgical centers. The models generated in this study have good predictive value and use only reliable and easily obtainable variables. The most reliable characteristics are those related to the type of colic and the location of the lesion.

Short-term survival rates of 1397 horses referred for colic from 2010 to 2018

Background

Up-to-date and hospital-specific knowledge of prognoses for horses with various forms of colic is essential for helping to guide owners’ decisions on costly treatments, and for assessing the continuous development of standards of care in the hospital. This study aimed to determine the short-term survival rates of horses admitted with colic to the University Hospital for Large Animals (UHLA), University of Copenhagen, Denmark, from 2010 to 2018, and to compare these to a previous local study as well as recent, comparable international studies.

Short-term survival rates were calculated for horses grouped by treatment (surgical, medical) and diseases. Results were compared to the selected studies using Chi-square tests.

Results

A total of 1752 horses were admitted with colic during the period, of which 355 were excluded for reasons such as economic restrictions or immediate euthanasia. Short-term survival of the remaining 1397 cases was significantly higher (83.0% (95% CI 81.1–85.0%)) than a previous local study (76%) and a recent Dutch study (80%). Medical treatment was carried out in 77.1% of cases, and surgery in 22.9% of the cases. Short-term survival for medically (89.7%) and surgically (60.6%) treated horses was significantly higher in the present study compared to the previous study (87% and 42%, respectively), but was similar to that found in the Dutch study. Significantly fewer horses were euthanised during surgery than in the previous study (17.2 vs. 40%), and significantly more horses recovered from surgery (79.1 vs. 56%). Short-term survival rate of surgically treated horses (60.6%) did not differ from other European studies (55–62%).

Conclusions

Short-term survival rates have increased since the previous study at UHLA, mainly due to a decrease in intraoperative euthanasia. Survival rates in this study are similar to those found in recent comparable colic studies.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13028-022-00631-4.

Effects of age, disease, and anastomosis on short- and long-term survival after surgical correction of small intestinal strangulating diseases in 89 horses

BACKGROUND

Although survival rates have been reported after small intestinal surgery for strangulating diseases in horses, none have followed survival for periods relevant to the long lifespan of horses and none have described effect of age, disease and surgical treatments over such long survival periods.

OBJECTIVES

To examine effects of age, disease, and type of surgery on long-term survival in horses after surgical treatment of small intestinal strangulating diseases over periods relevant to the expected lifespan of a horse.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective clinical study.

METHODS

Post-operative data were gathered from medical records and owner contact for 89 horses with small intestinal strangulation. Survival times from surgery to date of death or date of last follow-up were analysed by Kaplan-Meier statistics. Variables of interest were age, type of strangulating disease, and surgical correction. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to evaluate these variables.

RESULTS

Short-term survival was not affected by any of the variables measured. For long-term survival with Kaplan-Meier statistics, horses ≥16 years old had significantly shorter (P=0.002) median survival times (72 months; 95% C.I. 32.0-96.0) than younger horses (121.7 months; 95% C.I. 90.0-162), horses without resection had significantly longer (P=0.02) survival times (120 months; 95% C.I. 86-212) than horses that had jejunocecostomy (76.8 months; 95% C.I. 24-125), and horses with miscellaneous diseases had significantly longer (P=0.02) median survival times (161.9 months (95% C.I. 72.0-M) than horses with strangulating lipoma (79.8 months; 95% C.I. 32.0-120.0). In the multivariable Cox Proportional Hazard model, age (HR=2.67; 1.49-4.75, p<0.001) and anastomosis (HR=0.65; 0.46-0.92, P=0.02) had the most significant effect on median survival time.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Limitations were small numbers in some categories, loss of cases to follow-up, owner recall failures, and lack of a control group.

CONCLUSIONS

The remaining lifespan of older horses at the time of surgery had the greatest effect on survival. Age could influence long-term survival studies after colic surgery, and therefore needs to be considered for survival analyses. Horses that did not require resection and anastomosis had favourable outcomes, underscoring the potential importance of early intervention to reduce the need for resection.

[Evaluation of clinical examination parameters and a scoring system in equine colic as well as the assessment of their prognostic value]

SUBJECT AND AIM

In horses, colic is associated with relatively high mortality rates. Identification of parameters associated with poor outcome may aid in providing a more accurate prognosis. This study aimed to assess the early prognostic value towards survival of the horse based on parameters of the clinical examination.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In a retrospective study (2013-2017), results of the clinical examination of horses with colic were analyzed. Obtained parameters were categorized from physiologic up to different pathophysiologic manifestations. The risk of death was calculated as odds ratios in comparison to normal values of these parameters. Individual score points were obtained and related to the respective outcome. Cut-off values for prognosis and treatment were calculated to distinguish between outcome and treatment group.

RESULTS

A total of 492 colic horses were analyzed, presenting 433 survivors (88 %). Overall, medical treatment was selected in 346 (70.3 %) horses (with 96 % survivors) and surgical treatment (laparotomy) was performed in 146 (29.7 %) horses (69.2 % survivors). An increased likelihood of the outcome "death" was found in horses aged over 20 years (OR = 5.498, p < 0.0005), with colic signs of > 6 hours duration (OR = 3.590, p = 0.035) and, also, for breeds of draft horses (OR = 8.364, p < 0.0005). Horses with significant increases in heart and respiratory rates (OR = 24.294, p < 0.0005 and OR = 20.375, p < 0.0005, respectively) and increased blood lactate concentrations (> 90 mg/dl: OR = 26.390, p < 0.0005) were more likely to succumb to the disease. However, a scoring system failed to show an association between high score points and poor prognosis.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Parameters of the clinical examination as well as the history of the patient may be indicative for the patient's outcome. However, no clear-cut distinction of the evaluated parameters towards survival and treatment options was obtained. A careful investigation of the patient remains mandatory for selection of treatment and a proper assessment of prognosis.

Colic Surgery in Horses: A Retrospective Study Into Short- and Long-Term Survival Rate, Complications and Rehabilitation toward Sporting Activity

Colic surgery in horses impacts both short-term well-being of horses due to possible surgical and anesthetic complications and also long-term return to a sporting career. In this retrospective study, survival and complication rates, as well as functional outcome and behavioral problems in horses that underwent colic surgery were studied. Data from 283 horses that underwent colic surgery at a veterinary teaching hospital were analyzed. Furthermore, owners were contacted and requested to fill out a questionnaire concerning the first year of rehabilitation. Of 283 horses that underwent colic surgery, 167 (59%) were discharged home. After discharge from hospital, 34 horses (12%) were lost to follow-up. Of the remaining 133 horses, 128 were still alive after 1 year (96.2%), while 5 horses were euthanized due to recurrent colic. Of the horses that did not survive the hospitalization period 73 horses (25.8%) were euthanized intraoperatively and 36 horses (12.7%) during intensive care unit (ICU) stay. Survival of horses entering the ICU up to discharge from hospital was 79.5%. During rehabilitation, 49 horses (59.8%) that returned home experienced one or more recurrences of colic. Fifty-two horses (63.4%) that returned home reached at least preoperative level of performance. Altered behavior and gait-related problems during specific elements of riding (for instance during collecting, lateral bending, etc.) were reported in up to 46.2% of horses. Improving veterinary aftercare in collaboration with other disciplines (e.g., physiotherapy and saddle fitting) during rehabilitation could be a means to further improve athletic performance and welfare after recovery from colic surgery.

Clinical findings, diagnoses, and outcomes of horses presented for colic to a referral hospital in Atlantic Canada (2000-2015)

Medical records of equine patients presented for signs of abdominal pain to the Atlantic Veterinary College Teaching Hospital between 2000 and 2015 were reviewed. A total of 575 patients were enrolled, and the most common clinical findings, diagnoses, and outcomes are described. Potential predictors of survival to discharge were assessed. The most common diagnosis was large colon impaction (18.4%), followed by large colon volvulus (6.2%). Overall survival to discharge was 69%. The survival rates for horses were 82.9% for those with no diagnosis, 74.6% for those with large intestine lesions, and 38.5% for those with small intestine lesions. Significant predictors for non-survival were increasing age, increasing duration of colic signs, severity of colic, and a lesion in the small intestine. These data are important for veterinarians in the region who are treating cases of equine colic and advising clients.

Factors associated with euthanasia in horses and ponies enrolled in a laminitis cohort study in Great Britain

Euthanasia is a complex topic, with animal owners using multiple factors to shape their decision-making process. Previous epidemiological studies have described causes of equine mortality in specific populations, but there is limited evidence regarding factors contributing specifically to equine euthanasia in Great Britain (GB). This observational study used a prospective cohort design: the objectives were to describe owner-reported reasons for euthanasia, estimate the rate of euthanasia and identify associated factors in horses/ponies enrolled in a web-based epidemiological study of laminitis in GB. Self-selected horse/pony owners submitted regular management and health data over 29 months and reported dates and reasons for euthanasia during this period. The overall incidence of euthanasia was estimated and associated factors were identified using multivariable Cox regression modelling, adjusted for age, with variables retained in the final model if P ≤ 0.05. Data were available for 1070 horses/ponies contributing 1093 horse-years at risk (HYAR), with 80 owner-reported euthanasias. The incidence of euthanasia was 7.3 euthanasias per 100 HYAR (95 % confidence interval [CI] 5.9, 9.1). The most frequently reported health reasons contributing to euthanasia were laminitis-related consequences (25.0 % ; CI 16.8, 35.5 %), colic (21.3 % ; CI 13.7, 31.4 %), non-laminitic lameness (20.0 % ; CI 12.7, 30.1 %) and age-related deterioration, including owner-perceived compromised quality of life (20.0 % ; CI 12.7, 30.1 %). Health-related factors associated with significantly higher rates of euthanasia were colic (hazard ratio [HR] 26.4; CI 12.5, 55.8), pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (HR 3.0; CI 1.7, 5.4) and lameness due to navicular syndrome (HR 5.9; CI 1.8, 20.0), soft tissue injury (HR 6.5; CI 2.7, 15.6) or laminitis (HR 2.7; CI 1.3, 5.7). Further factors included being pure bred (HR 1.7; CI 1.0, 2.8), female (HR 1.7; CI 1.0, 2.9), having poor owner-perceived hoof quality (HR 2.4; CI 1.1, 5.2), being entirely stabled (HR 5.0; HR 2.1, 12.0), being on loan or under temporary care of the study participant (HR 2.3; CI 1.2, 4.4) and participating in affiliated or professional competitions (HR 5.9; CI 2.4, 14.8). Euthanasia rates were significantly higher in the first two study years compared to the third (P < 0.001). Animals whose owners used the study's custom-designed weight tracker tool had significantly lower rates of euthanasia (HR 0.6; CI 0.3, 0.95). This study has identified a number of, arguably preventable, health-related factors associated with higher rates of euthanasia. Data on owners' decision-making process regarding euthanasia, including emotive and financial impacts, were not recorded but are important contributors to euthanasia that require better understanding.

The Effect of Core Abdominal Muscle Rehabilitation Exercises on Return to Training and Performance in Horses After Colic Surgery

We conducted a retrospective cohort study to test the hypothesis that performing 4 weeks of core abdominal rehabilitation exercises (CARE) postoperatively would be safe and associated with faster return to training and improved performance after colic surgery. Performance horses that recovered from colic surgery performed by the same surgeon and survived ≥ 1 year from 2008 to 2017 were included. Data were obtained from a review of medical records. Information about the horses' rehabilitation and performance was obtained from owners/trainers. Data from horses that completed a 4-week CARE program after surgery were compared with control horses that did not do the exercises after colic surgery. Data were analyzed using univariate and multiple regression, P < .05. Eleven CARE horses and 51 controls between the ages of 3 and 18 years were included in the data analysis. All CARE horses completed the rehabilitation program with no reported complications, returned to work faster after surgery, P = .002, and to training faster, P = .0002. After colic surgery, 81% of CARE horses improved their performance level compared with 7.8% of controls, P < .001. Core abdominal rehabilitation exercises were safely performed by horses after colic surgery with no reported complications and may have facilitated faster convalescence and improved performance.

Short-term outcome and risk factors for post-operative complications following umbilical resection in 82 foals (2004-2016)

BACKGROUND

Umbilical remnant infection and patent urachus are an important cause of morbidity for the equine neonate. Left untreated, fatal complications can develop. Identifying risk factors for post-operative complications after surgery are important for estimating prognosis.

OBJECTIVES

To identify risk factors associated with post-operative complications in foals undergoing umbilical remnant resection due to patent and/or infected umbilical remnants.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

METHODS

Foals undergoing umbilical remnant resection due to patent urachus or infected remnants at the Marion duPont Scott Equine Medical Center from 2004 to 2016 were included in the study. Data were obtained from medical records and associations between outcomes and post-operative complications, and pre or intraoperative clinical variables were assessed using bivariable and multivariable analyses.

RESULTS

Eighty-two foals underwent umbilical remnant resection of which 73 (89.0%) survived to discharge. The urachus was the most commonly affected structure being patent and/or infected in 84.1% of cases. Concurrent diseases were present in 60.6% of foals prior to surgery, with diarrhoea and septic arthritis being most common. The presence of preoperative septic arthritis and/or physitis were significantly associated with nonsurvival (OR 33; 95% confidence interval 1.1-985.2; P = 0.04). Longer anaesthesia time (OR 1.4; 95% confidence interval 1.1-1.7; P = 0.02) and failure of passive transfer of immunoglobulins (OR 5.9; 95% confidence interval 1.2-29.04; P = 0.03) were associated with increased odds for post-operative complications.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

It is not known if medical treatment alone would have been successful in foals that did not receive preoperative medical treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall survival is high after surgical excision of umbilical remnants. The presence of preoperative septic arthritis and/or physitis was associated with decreased survival and failure of passive transfer of immunoglobulins and longer anaesthesia times were associated with increased odds for post-operative complications.

Occurrence, treatment protocols, and outcomes of colic in horses within Nairobi County, Kenya

Aim:

The aim of this study was to determine the treatments and their outcomes in horses with colic in Nairobi County, Kenya.

Materials and Methods:

This is a retrospective study to determine the occurrence, treatments, pain management, and outcomes of colic in horses in Nairobi County. Association between pain management protocols and the outcomes of colic with regard to recovery or death was also determined. Data collected from four equine practitioners were organized manually and given numerical codes as appropriate to facilitate entry into the computer. The coded data were entered into Microsoft Excel 2010 and exported to StatPlus pro 5.9.8 statistical package for analysis. Simple association tests were done between various factors and occurrence of colic.

Results:

The incidence of colic for the 11 years was 3.1%, which constituted 68.0% spasmodic colic, 27.8% impaction colic, and 4.2% displacement colic. Flunixin meglumine as a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) was used as the only pain management treatment in 85.3% of the cases, flunixin meglumine and butorphanol as NSAID-OPIOD combination in 6.4% of the cases, while buscopan as an antispasmodic was recorded in 5.9% of the cases mainly in spasmodic colic. Univariate analysis revealed simple association between various factors and the type of colic a horse was having. There was an association between the type of colic and the decision-making on the pain management protocol to use, whether single analgesic protocol (χ²=22.5, p<0.001) or use of analgesic combinations (χ²=18.3, p<0.001). The type of colic strongly influenced the decision for performing nasogastric intubation (χ²=265, p<0.001), but performing nasogastric intubation was weakly (χ²=4.9, p=0.03) associated with horse recovery from colic. Type of colic also strongly influenced the need for the use of metabolic stimulants, particularly vitamin B-complex (χ²=99.3, p<0.001). Recovery or death of the horse from colic was strongly associated with the type of colic (χ²=250, p<0.001). The possibility of recurrence of colic was weakly (χ²=4.6, p=0.04) determined by the type of colic, a horse had. Multivariate logistic regression revealed that the main cause of death was intestinal displacement and the majority of the horses with intestinal displacement died (β-estimate 2.7, odds ratio=0.07, p=0.007) compared to horses that had impaction colic.

Conclusion:

The incidence of colic is 3.1%, and the most common type of colic is spasmodic followed by impaction. The most common pain management protocol for colic is NSAIDs, mainly flunixin meglumine, followed by flunixin-butorphanol combination. Surgery for horses with colic in Nairobi County is not commonly done due to impeding poor prognoses. The horse owners tend to prefer euthanasia for such cases.