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Zhou Y, Tao L, Qiu J, Xu J, Yang X, Zhang Y, Tian X, Guan X, Cen X, Zhao Y. Tumor biomarkers for diagnosis, prognosis and targeted therapy. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2024; 9:132. [PMID: 38763973 PMCID: PMC11102923 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-024-01823-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Tumor biomarkers, the substances which are produced by tumors or the body's responses to tumors during tumorigenesis and progression, have been demonstrated to possess critical and encouraging value in screening and early diagnosis, prognosis prediction, recurrence detection, and therapeutic efficacy monitoring of cancers. Over the past decades, continuous progress has been made in exploring and discovering novel, sensitive, specific, and accurate tumor biomarkers, which has significantly promoted personalized medicine and improved the outcomes of cancer patients, especially advances in molecular biology technologies developed for the detection of tumor biomarkers. Herein, we summarize the discovery and development of tumor biomarkers, including the history of tumor biomarkers, the conventional and innovative technologies used for biomarker discovery and detection, the classification of tumor biomarkers based on tissue origins, and the application of tumor biomarkers in clinical cancer management. In particular, we highlight the recent advancements in biomarker-based anticancer-targeted therapies which are emerging as breakthroughs and promising cancer therapeutic strategies. We also discuss limitations and challenges that need to be addressed and provide insights and perspectives to turn challenges into opportunities in this field. Collectively, the discovery and application of multiple tumor biomarkers emphasized in this review may provide guidance on improved precision medicine, broaden horizons in future research directions, and expedite the clinical classification of cancer patients according to their molecular biomarkers rather than organs of origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Zhou
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Lei Tao
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Jiahao Qiu
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Jing Xu
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xinyu Yang
- West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- School of Medicine, Tibet University, Lhasa, 850000, China
| | - Xinyu Tian
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xinqi Guan
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xiaobo Cen
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Yinglan Zhao
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
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2
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Favale G, Donnarumma F, Capone V, Della Torre L, Beato A, Carannante D, Verrilli G, Nawaz A, Grimaldi F, De Simone MC, Del Gaudio N, Megchelenbrink WL, Caraglia M, Benedetti R, Altucci L, Carafa V. Deregulation of New Cell Death Mechanisms in Leukemia. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16:1657. [PMID: 38730609 PMCID: PMC11083363 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16091657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Hematological malignancies are among the top five most frequent forms of cancer in developed countries worldwide. Although the new therapeutic approaches have improved the quality and the life expectancy of patients, the high rate of recurrence and drug resistance are the main issues for counteracting blood disorders. Chemotherapy-resistant leukemic clones activate molecular processes for biological survival, preventing the activation of regulated cell death pathways, leading to cancer progression. In the past decade, leukemia research has predominantly centered around modulating the well-established processes of apoptosis (type I cell death) and autophagy (type II cell death). However, the development of therapy resistance and the adaptive nature of leukemic clones have rendered targeting these cell death pathways ineffective. The identification of novel cell death mechanisms, as categorized by the Nomenclature Committee on Cell Death (NCCD), has provided researchers with new tools to overcome survival mechanisms and activate alternative molecular pathways. This review aims to synthesize information on these recently discovered RCD mechanisms in the major types of leukemia, providing researchers with a comprehensive overview of cell death and its modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregorio Favale
- Dipartimento di Medicina di Precisione, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.D.); (V.C.); (L.D.T.); (A.B.); (D.C.); (G.V.); (A.N.); (N.D.G.); (W.L.M.); (M.C.); (R.B.); (L.A.)
| | - Federica Donnarumma
- Dipartimento di Medicina di Precisione, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.D.); (V.C.); (L.D.T.); (A.B.); (D.C.); (G.V.); (A.N.); (N.D.G.); (W.L.M.); (M.C.); (R.B.); (L.A.)
| | - Vincenza Capone
- Dipartimento di Medicina di Precisione, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.D.); (V.C.); (L.D.T.); (A.B.); (D.C.); (G.V.); (A.N.); (N.D.G.); (W.L.M.); (M.C.); (R.B.); (L.A.)
| | - Laura Della Torre
- Dipartimento di Medicina di Precisione, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.D.); (V.C.); (L.D.T.); (A.B.); (D.C.); (G.V.); (A.N.); (N.D.G.); (W.L.M.); (M.C.); (R.B.); (L.A.)
| | - Antonio Beato
- Dipartimento di Medicina di Precisione, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.D.); (V.C.); (L.D.T.); (A.B.); (D.C.); (G.V.); (A.N.); (N.D.G.); (W.L.M.); (M.C.); (R.B.); (L.A.)
| | - Daniela Carannante
- Dipartimento di Medicina di Precisione, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.D.); (V.C.); (L.D.T.); (A.B.); (D.C.); (G.V.); (A.N.); (N.D.G.); (W.L.M.); (M.C.); (R.B.); (L.A.)
| | - Giulia Verrilli
- Dipartimento di Medicina di Precisione, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.D.); (V.C.); (L.D.T.); (A.B.); (D.C.); (G.V.); (A.N.); (N.D.G.); (W.L.M.); (M.C.); (R.B.); (L.A.)
| | - Asmat Nawaz
- Dipartimento di Medicina di Precisione, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.D.); (V.C.); (L.D.T.); (A.B.); (D.C.); (G.V.); (A.N.); (N.D.G.); (W.L.M.); (M.C.); (R.B.); (L.A.)
- Biogem, Molecular Biology and Genetics Research Institute, 83031 Ariano Irpino, Italy
| | - Francesco Grimaldi
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Chirurgia, Divisione di Ematologia, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, 80131 Napoli, Italy;
| | | | - Nunzio Del Gaudio
- Dipartimento di Medicina di Precisione, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.D.); (V.C.); (L.D.T.); (A.B.); (D.C.); (G.V.); (A.N.); (N.D.G.); (W.L.M.); (M.C.); (R.B.); (L.A.)
| | - Wouter Leonard Megchelenbrink
- Dipartimento di Medicina di Precisione, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.D.); (V.C.); (L.D.T.); (A.B.); (D.C.); (G.V.); (A.N.); (N.D.G.); (W.L.M.); (M.C.); (R.B.); (L.A.)
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Michele Caraglia
- Dipartimento di Medicina di Precisione, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.D.); (V.C.); (L.D.T.); (A.B.); (D.C.); (G.V.); (A.N.); (N.D.G.); (W.L.M.); (M.C.); (R.B.); (L.A.)
- Biogem, Molecular Biology and Genetics Research Institute, 83031 Ariano Irpino, Italy
| | - Rosaria Benedetti
- Dipartimento di Medicina di Precisione, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.D.); (V.C.); (L.D.T.); (A.B.); (D.C.); (G.V.); (A.N.); (N.D.G.); (W.L.M.); (M.C.); (R.B.); (L.A.)
| | - Lucia Altucci
- Dipartimento di Medicina di Precisione, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.D.); (V.C.); (L.D.T.); (A.B.); (D.C.); (G.V.); (A.N.); (N.D.G.); (W.L.M.); (M.C.); (R.B.); (L.A.)
- Biogem, Molecular Biology and Genetics Research Institute, 83031 Ariano Irpino, Italy
- Institute of Experimental Endocrinology and Oncology “Gaetano Salvatore” (IEOS)-National Research Council (CNR), 80131 Napoli, Italy
- Programma di Epigenetica Medica, A.O.U. “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Carafa
- Dipartimento di Medicina di Precisione, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Napoli, Italy; (G.F.); (F.D.); (V.C.); (L.D.T.); (A.B.); (D.C.); (G.V.); (A.N.); (N.D.G.); (W.L.M.); (M.C.); (R.B.); (L.A.)
- Biogem, Molecular Biology and Genetics Research Institute, 83031 Ariano Irpino, Italy
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3
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Zhao W, Mo M, Yu J, Cheng S, Long G, Luo Z, Liang W, Yan C, Luo H, Sun B. A novel α,β-unsaturated ketone inhibits leukemia cell growth as PARP1 inhibitor. Med Oncol 2024; 41:113. [PMID: 38602586 DOI: 10.1007/s12032-024-02324-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
Leukemia is a malignant disease of the hematopoietic system, in which clonal leukemia cells accumulate and inhibit normal hematopoiesis in the bone marrow and other hematopoietic tissues as a result of uncontrolled proliferation and impaired apoptosis, among other mechanisms. In this study, the anti-leukemic effect of a compound (SGP-17-S) extracted from Chloranthus multistachys, a plant with anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and anti-tumor effects, was evaluated. The effect of SGP-17-S on the viability of leukemic cell was demonstrated by MTT assay, cell cycle, and apoptosis were assessed by flow cytometry using PI staining and Annexin V/PI double staining. Combinations of network pharmacology and cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) with western blot were used to validate agents that act on leukemia targets. The results showed that SGP-17-S inhibited the growth of leukemia cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. SGP-17-S blocked HEL cells in the G2 phase, induced apoptosis, decreased Bcl-2 and caspase-8 protein expression, and increased Bax and caspase-3 expression. In addition, CETSA revealed that PARP1 is an important target gene for the inhibition of HEL cell growth, and SGP-17-S exerted its action on leukemia cells by targeting PARP1. Therefore, this study might provide new solutions and ideas for the treatment of leukemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weijia Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Human Brain Bank for Functions and Diseases of Department of Education of Guizhou Province, College of Basic Medical, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550025, China
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550014, China
| | - Min Mo
- Key Laboratory of Human Brain Bank for Functions and Diseases of Department of Education of Guizhou Province, College of Basic Medical, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550025, China
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550014, China
| | - Jia Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550014, China
- Guizhou Provincial Engineering Research Center for Natural Drugs, Guiyang, 550014, China
| | - Sha Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550014, China
- Guizhou Provincial Engineering Research Center for Natural Drugs, Guiyang, 550014, China
| | - Guiping Long
- GuiZhou KingMed Center for Clinical Laboratory Co., Ltd, Guiyang, 550014, China
| | - Zhiqiong Luo
- Key Laboratory of Human Brain Bank for Functions and Diseases of Department of Education of Guizhou Province, College of Basic Medical, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550025, China
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550014, China
| | - Wei Liang
- Department of Pharmacy, An Shun City People's Hospital, Anshun, 561000, China
| | - Chen Yan
- Department of Pharmacy, An Shun City People's Hospital, Anshun, 561000, China.
| | - Heng Luo
- Key Laboratory of Human Brain Bank for Functions and Diseases of Department of Education of Guizhou Province, College of Basic Medical, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550025, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550014, China.
- Guizhou Provincial Engineering Research Center for Natural Drugs, Guiyang, 550014, China.
| | - Baofei Sun
- Key Laboratory of Human Brain Bank for Functions and Diseases of Department of Education of Guizhou Province, College of Basic Medical, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550025, China.
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Li Y, Zhao B, Peng J, Tang H, Wang S, Peng S, Ye F, Wang J, Ouyang K, Li J, Cai M, Chen Y. Inhibition of NF-κB signaling unveils novel strategies to overcome drug resistance in cancers. Drug Resist Updat 2024; 73:101042. [PMID: 38219532 DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2023.101042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
Drug resistance in cancer remains a major challenge in oncology, impeding the effectiveness of various treatment modalities. The nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway has emerged as a critical player in the development of drug resistance in cancer cells. This comprehensive review explores the intricate relationship between NF-κB and drug resistance in cancer. We delve into the molecular mechanisms through which NF-κB activation contributes to resistance against chemotherapeutic agents, targeted therapies, and immunotherapies. Additionally, we discuss potential strategies to overcome this resistance by targeting NF-κB signaling, such as small molecule inhibitors and combination therapies. Understanding the multifaceted interactions between NF-κB and drug resistance is crucial for the development of more effective cancer treatment strategies. By dissecting the complex signaling network of NF-κB, we hope to shed light on novel therapeutic approaches that can enhance treatment outcomes, ultimately improving the prognosis for cancer patients. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge on NF-κB and its role in drug resistance, offering insights that may guide future research and therapeutic interventions in the fight against cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanfang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Cancer,Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Baiwei Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Cancer,Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Juzheng Peng
- Scientific Research Center, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China
| | - Hailin Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Cancer,Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Sicheng Wang
- School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, China
| | - Sicheng Peng
- School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, China
| | - Feng Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Cancer,Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Junye Wang
- School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, China
| | - Kai Ouyang
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Jianjun Li
- The Second Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China.
| | - Manbo Cai
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China.
| | - Yongming Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Cancer,Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou 510060, China.
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Jiang P, Fan J, Huang S, Liu L, Bai M, Sun Q, Shen J, Zhang N, Liu D, Zhou N, Feng Y, Jiang J, Zhu J. A pyroptosis-related signature in colorectal cancer: exploring its prognostic value and immunological characteristics. PeerJ 2023; 11:e16631. [PMID: 38144182 PMCID: PMC10740607 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.16631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The heterogeneity of colorectal cancer (CRC) is the main cause of the disparity of drug sensitivity and the variability of prognosis. Pyroptosis is closely associated with the development and prognosis of various tumors, including CRC. Dividing CRC into distinct subgroups based on pyroptosis is a worthwhile topic for improving the precision treatment and prognosis prediction of CRC. Methods We classified patients into two clusters using the consensus clustering based on the pyroptosis-related genes (PRGs). Next, the prognostic signature was developed with LASSO regression analysis using the screened genes from differentially expressed genes (DEGs) by univariate and multivariate Cox analyses. According to the pyroptosis-related score (PR score) calculated with the signature, patients belonged to two groups with distinct prognosis. Moreover, we assessed the immune profile to explore the relationship between the signature and immunological characteristics. Two single cell sequencing databases were adopted for further exploration of tumor immune microenvironment (TME). In addition, we applied our own cohort and Drugbank to explore the correlation of the signature and clinical therapies. We also studied the expression of key genes by immunohistochemistry. Results The signature performed well in predicting the prognosis of CRC as the high area under curve (AUC) value demonstrated. Patients with a higher PR score had poorer prognosis and higher expression of immune checkpoints but more abundant infiltration of immune cells. Combining with the indicator of therapeutic analysis, they might benefit more from immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) and neo-adjuvant chemoradiotherapy (nCRT). Conclusion In conclusion, our study is based on genomics and transcriptomics to investigate the role of PRGs in CRC. We have established a prognostic signature and integrated single-cell data to study the relationship between the signature with the TME in CRC. Its clinical application in reliable prediction of prognosis and personalized treatment was validated by public and own sequencing cohort. It provided a new insight for the personalized treatment of CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peicheng Jiang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, China
- Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jin Fan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Shenglin Huang
- Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center and Institutes of Biomedical Sciences Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Luying Liu
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, China
- Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Minghua Bai
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, China
- Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Quanquan Sun
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, China
- Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jinwen Shen
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, China
- Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Na Zhang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, China
- Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Dong Liu
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, China
- Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ning Zhou
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, China
- Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yanru Feng
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, China
- Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jin Jiang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The First Hospital of Jiaxing Affiliated to Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, China
- Jiaxing Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, 2019 Jiaxing Key Discipline of Medicine, Jiaxing, China
| | - Ji Zhu
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, China
- Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, China
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Hangzhou, China
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Maru B, Messikommer A, Huang L, Seipel K, Kovecses O, Valk PJM, Theocharides APA, Mercier FE, Pabst T, McKeague M, Luedtke NW. PARP-1 improves leukemia outcomes by inducing parthanatos during chemotherapy. Cell Rep Med 2023; 4:101191. [PMID: 37683650 PMCID: PMC10518631 DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2023.101191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
Previous chemotherapy research has focused almost exclusively on apoptosis. Here, a standard frontline drug combination of cytarabine and idarubicin induces distinct features of caspase-independent, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1)-mediated programmed cell death "parthanatos" in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cell lines (n = 3/10 tested), peripheral blood mononuclear cells from healthy human donors (n = 10/10 tested), and primary cell samples from patients with AML (n = 18/39 tested, French-American-British subtypes M4 and M5). A 3-fold improvement in survival rates is observed in the parthanatos-positive versus -negative patient groups (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.28-0.37, p = 0.002-0.046). Manipulation of PARP-1 activity in parthanatos-competent cells reveals higher drug sensitivity in cells that have basal PARP-1 levels as compared with those subjected to PARP-1 overexpression or suppression. The same trends are observed in RNA expression databases and support the conclusion that PARP-1 can have optimal levels for favorable chemotherapeutic responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruktawit Maru
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | | | - Linhui Huang
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Katja Seipel
- Department of Medical Oncology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Olivia Kovecses
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Peter J M Valk
- Department of Hematology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Alexandre P A Theocharides
- Department of Medical Oncology and Hematology, University of Zurich and University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Francois E Mercier
- Division of Hematology and Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Thomas Pabst
- Department of Medical Oncology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Maureen McKeague
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Department of Chemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
| | - Nathan W Luedtke
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
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7
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Ma J, Wen X, Xu Z, Xia P, Jin Y, Lin J, Qian J. Abnormal regulation of miR-29b-ID1 signaling is involved in the process of decitabine resistance in leukemia cells. Cell Cycle 2023; 22:1215-1231. [PMID: 37032592 PMCID: PMC10193880 DOI: 10.1080/15384101.2023.2200312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Decitabine (DAC) is an inhibitor of DNA methyltransferase used to treat leukemia, but primary or secondary resistance to DAC may develop during therapy. The mechanisms related to DAC resistance remain poorly understood. In this study, we find that miR-29b expression was decreased in various leukemia cell lines and AML patients and was associated with poor prognosis. In DAC-sensitive cells, miR-29b inhibited cell growth, promoted apoptosis, and increased the sensitivity to DAC. Similarly, it exerted anti-leukemic effects in DAC-resistant cells. When the miR-29b promoter in DAC-resistant cells was demethylated, its expression was not up-regulated. Furthermore, the expression of ID1, one of the target genes of miR-29b, was down-regulated in miR-29b transfected leukemic cells. ID1 promoted cell growth, inhibited cell apoptosis, and decreased DAC sensitivity in leukemic cells in vitro and in vivo. ID1 was down-regulated in DAC-sensitive cells treated with DAC, while it was up-regulated in DAC-resistant cells. Interestingly, the ID1 promoter region was completely unmethylated in both DAC-resistant cells and sensitive cells before DAC treatment. The growth inhibition, increased DAC sensitivity, and apoptosis induced by miR-29b can be eliminated by increasing ID1 expression. These results suggested that DAC regulates ID1 expression by acting on miR-29b. Abnormal ID1 expression of ID1 that is methylation independent and induced by miR-29b may be involved in the process of leukemia cells acquiring DAC resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jichun Ma
- Department of central lab, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- Zhenjiang Clinical Research Center of Hematology, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- The Key Lab of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment in Hematologic Malignancies of Zhenjiang City, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiangmei Wen
- Department of central lab, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- Zhenjiang Clinical Research Center of Hematology, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- The Key Lab of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment in Hematologic Malignancies of Zhenjiang City, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zijun Xu
- Department of central lab, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- Zhenjiang Clinical Research Center of Hematology, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- The Key Lab of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment in Hematologic Malignancies of Zhenjiang City, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Peihui Xia
- Department of central lab, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- Zhenjiang Clinical Research Center of Hematology, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- The Key Lab of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment in Hematologic Malignancies of Zhenjiang City, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ye Jin
- Zhenjiang Clinical Research Center of Hematology, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- The Key Lab of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment in Hematologic Malignancies of Zhenjiang City, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- Department of Hematology, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jiang Lin
- Department of central lab, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- Zhenjiang Clinical Research Center of Hematology, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- The Key Lab of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment in Hematologic Malignancies of Zhenjiang City, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jun Qian
- Zhenjiang Clinical Research Center of Hematology, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- The Key Lab of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment in Hematologic Malignancies of Zhenjiang City, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- Department of Hematology, Affiliated People’s Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
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8
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Garciaz S, Miller T, Collette Y, Vey N. Targeting regulated cell death pathways in acute myeloid leukemia. CANCER DRUG RESISTANCE (ALHAMBRA, CALIF.) 2023; 6:151-168. [PMID: 37065864 PMCID: PMC10099605 DOI: 10.20517/cdr.2022.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
Abstract
The use of the BCL2 inhibitor venetoclax has transformed the management of patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) who are ineligible for intensive chemotherapy. By triggering intrinsic apoptosis, the drug is an excellent illustration of how our greater understanding of molecular cell death pathways can be translated into the clinic. Nevertheless, most venetoclax-treated patients will relapse, suggesting the need to target additional regulated cell death pathways. To highlight advances in this strategy, we review the recognized regulated cell death pathways, including apoptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis and autophagy. Next, we detail the therapeutic opportunities to trigger regulated cell death in AML. Finally, we describe the main drug discovery challenges for regulated cell death inducers and their translation into clinical trials. A better knowledge of the molecular pathways regulating cell death represents a promising strategy to develop new drugs to cure resistant or refractory AML patients, particularly those resistant to intrinsic apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvain Garciaz
- Hematology Department, Integrative Structural and Chemical Biology, Aix-Marseille Université, Inserm U1068, CNRS UMR7258, Institut Paoli-Calmettes, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Marseille (CRCM), Marseille 13009, France
| | - Thomas Miller
- Integrative Structural and Chemical Biology, Aix-Marseille Université, Inserm U1068, CNRS UMR7258, Institut Paoli-Calmettes, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Marseille (CRCM), Marseille 13009, France
| | - Yves Collette
- Integrative Structural and Chemical Biology, Aix-Marseille Université, Inserm U1068, CNRS UMR7258, Institut Paoli-Calmettes, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Marseille (CRCM), Marseille 13009, France
| | - Norbert Vey
- Hematology Department, Aix-Marseille Université, Inserm U1068, CNRS UMR7258, Institut Paoli-Calmettes, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Marseille (CRCM), Marseille 13009, France
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9
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Protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance in malignant tumors: molecular mechanisms and future perspective. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2022; 7:329. [PMID: 36115852 PMCID: PMC9482625 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-022-01168-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
AbstractProtein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) are a class of proteins with tyrosine kinase activity that phosphorylate tyrosine residues of critical molecules in signaling pathways. Their basal function is essential for maintaining normal cell growth and differentiation. However, aberrant activation of PTKs caused by various factors can deviate cell function from the expected trajectory to an abnormal growth state, leading to carcinogenesis. Inhibiting the aberrant PTK function could inhibit tumor growth. Therefore, tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), target-specific inhibitors of PTKs, have been used in treating malignant tumors and play a significant role in targeted therapy of cancer. Currently, drug resistance is the main reason for limiting TKIs efficacy of cancer. The increasing studies indicated that tumor microenvironment, cell death resistance, tumor metabolism, epigenetic modification and abnormal metabolism of TKIs were deeply involved in tumor development and TKI resistance, besides the abnormal activation of PTK-related signaling pathways involved in gene mutations. Accordingly, it is of great significance to study the underlying mechanisms of TKIs resistance and find solutions to reverse TKIs resistance for improving TKIs efficacy of cancer. Herein, we reviewed the drug resistance mechanisms of TKIs and the potential approaches to overcome TKI resistance, aiming to provide a theoretical basis for improving the efficacy of TKIs.
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10
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Tao S, Tian L, Wang X, Shou Y. A pyroptosis-related gene signature for prognosis and immune microenvironment of pancreatic cancer. Front Genet 2022; 13:817919. [PMID: 36118860 PMCID: PMC9476319 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.817919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer is one of the most lethal tumors owing to its unspecific symptoms during the early stage and multiple treatment resistances. Pyroptosis, a newly discovered gasdermin-mediated cell death, facilitates anti- or pro-tumor effects in a variety of cancers, whereas the impact of pyroptosis in pancreatic cancer remains unclear. Therefore, we downloaded RNA expression and clinic data from the TCGA-PAAD cohort and were surprised to find that most pyroptosis-related genes (PRGs) are not only overexpressed in tumor tissue but also strongly associated with overall survival. For their remarkable prognostic value, cox regression analysis and lasso regression were used to establish a five-gene signature. All patients were divided into low- and high-risk groups based on the media value of the risk score, and we discovered that low-risk patients had better outcomes in both the testing and validation cohorts using time receiver operating characteristic (ROC), nomograms, survival, and decision analysis. More importantly, a higher somatic mutation burden and less immune cell infiltration were found in the high-risk group. Following that, we predicted tumor response to chemotherapy and immunotherapy in both low- and high-risk groups, which suggests patients with low risk were more likely to respond to both immunotherapy and chemotherapy. To summarize, our study established an effective model that can help clinicians better predict patients’ drug responses and outcomes, and we also present basic evidence for future pyroptosis related studies in pancreatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sifan Tao
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Li Tian
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Xiaoyan Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- *Correspondence: Xiaoyan Wang, ; Yajun Shou,
| | - Yajun Shou
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Research Center of Digestive Disease, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- *Correspondence: Xiaoyan Wang, ; Yajun Shou,
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11
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Targeting Redox Regulation as a Therapeutic Opportunity against Acute Leukemia: Pro-Oxidant Strategy or Antioxidant Approach? Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11091696. [PMID: 36139768 PMCID: PMC9495346 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11091696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 08/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Redox adaptation is essential for human health, as the physiological quantities of non-radical reactive oxygen species operate as the main second messengers to regulate normal redox reactions by controlling several sensors. An abnormal increase reactive oxygen species, called oxidative stress, induces biological injury. For this reason, variations in oxidative stress continue to receive consideration as a possible approach to treat leukemic diseases. However, the intricacy of redox reactions and their effects might be a relevant obstacle; consequently, and alongside approaches aimed at increasing oxidative stress in neoplastic cells, antioxidant strategies have also been suggested for the same purpose. The present review focuses on the molecular processes of anomalous oxidative stress in acute myeloid and acute lymphoblastic leukemias as well as on the oxidative stress-determined pathways implicated in leukemogenic development. Furthermore, we review the effect of chemotherapies on oxidative stress and the possibility that their pharmacological effects might be increased by modifying the intracellular redox equilibrium through a pro-oxidant approach or an antioxidant strategy. Finally, we evaluated the prospect of varying oxidative stress as an efficacious modality to destroy chemoresistant cells using new methodologies. Altering redox conditions may be advantageous for inhibiting genomic variability and the eradication of leukemic clones will promote the treatment of leukemic disease.
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12
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Zang X, Song J, Li Y, Han Y. Targeting necroptosis as an alternative strategy in tumor treatment: From drugs to nanoparticles. J Control Release 2022; 349:213-226. [PMID: 35793737 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.06.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Over last decades, most antitumor therapeutic strategies have focused on apoptosis, however, apoptosis resistance and immunological silence usually led to treatment failure. In this sense, triggering other programmed cell death such as necroptosis may achieve a better therapeutic efficacy and has gained widespread attentions in tumor therapy. Studies in this field have identified several types of necroptosis modulators and highlighted the therapeutic potential of necroptotic cell death in cancer. Nanoparticles further provide possibilities to improve therapeutic outcomes as an efficient drug delivery system, facilitating tumor targeting and controlled cargo release. Furthermore, some nanoparticles themselves can trigger/promote programmed necrosis through hyperthermia, ultrasound and autophagy blockage. These investigations have entered necroptosis for consideration as a promising strategy for tumor therapy, though numerous challenges remain and clinical applications are still distant. In this review, we would briefly introduce molecular mechanism and characteristics of necroptosis, and then summarize recent progress of programmed necrosis and their inducers in tumor therapy. Furthermore, the antitumor strategies that take advantages of nanoparticles to induce necroptosis are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinlong Zang
- School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Ningxia Road 308, Qingdao, PR China.
| | - Jinxiao Song
- School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Ningxia Road 308, Qingdao, PR China
| | - Yanfeng Li
- School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Ningxia Road 308, Qingdao, PR China
| | - Yantao Han
- School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Ningxia Road 308, Qingdao, PR China
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13
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Markova L, Novohradsky V, Kasparkova J, Ruiz J, Brabec V. Dipyridophenazine iridium(III) complex as a phototoxic cancer stem cell selective, mitochondria targeting agent. Chem Biol Interact 2022; 360:109955. [PMID: 35447138 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2022.109955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In this work, the mechanism underlying the anticancer activity of a photoactivatable Ir(III) compound of the type [Ir(CˆN)2(dppz)][PF6] where CˆN = 1-methyl-2-(2'-thienyl)benzimidazole (complex 1) was investigated. Complex 1 photoactivated by visible light shows potent activity against highly aggressive and poorly treatable Rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells, the most frequent soft tissue sarcomas of children. This remarkable activity of 1 was observed not only in RD cells cultured in 2D monolayers but, more importantly, also in 3D spheroids, which resemble in many aspects solid tumors and serve as a promising model to mimic the in vivo situation. Importantly, photoactivated 1 kills not only differentiated RD cells but also even more effectively cancer stem cells (CSCs) of RD. One of the factors responsible for the activity of irradiated 1 in RD CSCs is its ability to produce ROS in these cells more effectively than in differentiated RD cells. Moreover, photoactivated 1 caused in RD differentiated cells and CSCs a significant decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential and promotes opening mitochondrial permeability transition pores in these cells, a mechanism that has never been demonstrated for any other metal-based anticancer complex. The results of this work give evidence that 1 has a potential for further evaluation using in vivo models as a promising chemotherapeutic agent for photodynamic therapy of hardly treatable human Rhabdomyosarcoma, particularly for its activity in both stem and differentiated cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lenka Markova
- Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Biophysics, Brno, CZ-61265, Czech Republic
| | - Vojtech Novohradsky
- Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Biophysics, Brno, CZ-61265, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Kasparkova
- Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Biophysics, Brno, CZ-61265, Czech Republic
| | - Jose Ruiz
- Departamento de Quimica Inorganica, Universidad de Murcia and Institute for Bio- Health Research of Murcia (IMIB-Arrixaca), E-30071, Murcia, Spain
| | - Viktor Brabec
- Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Biophysics, Brno, CZ-61265, Czech Republic.
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14
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Torquato HFV, Junior MTR, Lima CS, Júnior RTDA, Talhati F, Dias DA, Justo GZ, Ferreira AT, Pilli RA, Paredes-Gamero EJ. A canthin-6-one derivative induces cell death by apoptosis/necroptosis-like with DNA damage in acute myeloid cells. Biomed Pharmacother 2022; 145:112439. [PMID: 34808555 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Natural products have long been considered a relevant source of new antitumor agents. Despite advances in the treatment of younger patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML), the prognosis of elderly patients remains poor, with a high frequency of relapse. The cytotoxicity of canthin-6-one alkaloids has been extensively studied in different cell types, including leukemic strains. Among the canthin-6-one analogs tested, 10-methoxycanthin-6-one (Mtx-C) showed the highest cytotoxicity in the malignant AML cells Kasumi-1 and KG-1. Thus, we evaluated the cytotoxicity and cell death mechanisms related to Mtx-C using the EC50 (80 µM for Kasumi-1 and 36 µM for KG-1) treatment for 24 h. Our results identify reactive oxygen species production, mitochondrial depolarization, annexin V-FITC/7-AAD double staining, caspase cleave and upregulation of mitochondria-dependent apoptosis proteins (Bax, Bim, Bik, Puma and phosphorylation of p53) for both cell lineages. However, downregulation of Bcl-2 and the simultaneous execution of the apoptotic and necroptotic programs associated with the phosphorylation of the proteins receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 3 and mixed lineage kinase domain-like pseudokinase occurred only in Kasumi-1 cells. About the lasted events, Kasumi-1 cell death was inhibited by pharmacological agents such as Zvad-FMK and necrostatin-1. The underlying molecular mechanisms of Mtx-C still include participation in the DNA damage and stress-signaling pathways involving p38 and c-Jun N-terminal mitogen-activated protein kinases and interaction with DNA. Thus, Mtx-C represents a promising tool for the development of new antileukemic molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heron F V Torquato
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Três de Maio 100, 04044-020 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Faculdade de Farmácia, Centro Universitário Braz Cubas, 08773-380 Mogi das Cruzes, SP, Brazil; Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Alimentos e Nutrição, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, 79070-900 Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
| | | | - Cauê Santos Lima
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Três de Maio 100, 04044-020 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Roberto Theodoro de Araujo Júnior
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Três de Maio 100, 04044-020 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Faculdade de Farmácia, Centro Universitário Braz Cubas, 08773-380 Mogi das Cruzes, SP, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Talhati
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Centro Universitário Braz Cubas, 08773-380 Mogi das Cruzes, SP, Brazil
| | - Dhebora Albuquerque Dias
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Alimentos e Nutrição, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, 79070-900 Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
| | - Giselle Zenker Justo
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Três de Maio 100, 04044-020 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Alice Teixeira Ferreira
- Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Três de Maio 100, 04044-020 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Ronaldo Aloise Pilli
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, 13084-971 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Edgar J Paredes-Gamero
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Três de Maio 100, 04044-020 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Alimentos e Nutrição, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, 79070-900 Campo Grande, MS, Brazil.
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15
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Tang J, Yang Y, Qu J, Ban W, Song H, Gu Z, Yang Y, Cai L, Theivendran S, Wang Y, Zhang M, Yu C. Mesoporous sodium four-coordinate aluminosilicate nanoparticles modulate dendritic cell pyroptosis and activate innate and adaptive immunity. Chem Sci 2022; 13:8507-8517. [PMID: 35974763 PMCID: PMC9337734 DOI: 10.1039/d1sc05319a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyroptosis is a programmed cell death widely studied in cancer cells for tumour inhibition, but rarely in dendritic cell (DC) activation for vaccine development. Here, we report the synthesis of sodium stabilized mesoporous aluminosilicate nanoparticles as DC pyroptosis modulators and antigen carriers. By surface modification of sodium-stabilized four-coordinate aluminium species on dendritic mesoporous silica nanoparticles, the resultant Na-IVAl-DMSN significantly activated DC through caspase-1 dependent pyroptosis via pH responsive intracellular ion exchange. The released proinflammatory cellular contents further mediated DC hyperactivation with prolonged cytokine release. In vivo studies showed that Na-IVAl-DMSN induced enhanced cellular immunity mediated by natural killer (NK) cells, cytotoxic T cells, and memory T cells as well as humoral immune response. Our results provide a new principle for the design of next-generation nanoadjuvants for vaccine applications. Na-IVAl-DMSN acts as both antigen carriers and modulators to “hyperactivate” dendritic cells (DCs) via potassium (K+) efflux dependent pyroptosis, eventually leading to enhanced adaptive and innate immunity.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Tang
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Yang Yang
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Jingjing Qu
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Wenhuang Ban
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Hao Song
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Zhengying Gu
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Yannan Yang
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Larry Cai
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Shevanuja Theivendran
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Yue Wang
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Min Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Chengzhong Yu
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
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16
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Xiang Y, Peng F, Guo Y, Ge H, Cai S, Fan L, Peng Y, Wen H, Wang Q, Tao L. Connexin32 activates necroptosis through Src-mediated inhibition of caspase 8 in hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer Sci 2021; 112:3507-3519. [PMID: 34050696 PMCID: PMC8409421 DOI: 10.1111/cas.14994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Necroptosis is an alternative form of programmed cell death that generally occurs under apoptosis-deficient conditions. Our previous work showed that connexin32 (Cx32) promotes the malignant progress of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) by enhancing the ability of resisting apoptosis in vivo and in vitro. Whether triggering necroptosis is a promising strategy to eliminate the apoptosis-resistant HCC cells with high Cx32 expression remains unknown. In this study, we found that Cx32 expression was positively correlated with the expression of necroptosis protein biomarkers in human HCC specimens, cell lines, and a xenograft model. Treatment with shikonin, a well-used necroptosis inducer, markedly caused necroptosis in HCC cells. Interestingly, overexpressed Cx32 exacerbated shikonin-induced necroptosis, but downregulation of Cx32 alleviated necroptosis in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, Cx32 was found to bind to Src and promote Src-mediated caspase 8 phosphorylation and inactivation, which ultimately reduced the activated caspase 8-mediated proteolysis of receptor-interacting serine-threonine protein kinase 1/3, the key molecule for necroptosis activation. In conclusion, we showed that Cx32 contributed to the activation of necroptosis in HCC cells through binding to Src and then mediating the inactivation of caspase 8. The present study suggested that necroptosis inducers could be more favorable than apoptosis inducers to eliminate HCC cells with high expression of Cx32.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu‐ke Xiang
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhongshan School of MedicineSun Yat‐Sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & The Fifth Affiliated HospitalGuangzhou Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Fu‐hua Peng
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhongshan School of MedicineSun Yat‐Sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Yun‐quan Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central AsiaThe First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical UniversityUrumqiPR China
| | - Hui Ge
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central AsiaThe First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical UniversityUrumqiPR China
| | - Shao‐yi Cai
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhongshan School of MedicineSun Yat‐Sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Li‐xia Fan
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhongshan School of MedicineSun Yat‐Sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Yue‐xia Peng
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhongshan School of MedicineSun Yat‐Sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Hao Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central AsiaThe First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical UniversityUrumqiPR China
| | - Qin Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhongshan School of MedicineSun Yat‐Sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Liang Tao
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhongshan School of MedicineSun Yat‐Sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central AsiaThe First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical UniversityUrumqiPR China
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17
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Khan I, Yousif A, Chesnokov M, Hong L, Chefetz II. A decade of cell death studies: Breathing new life into necroptosis. Pharmacol Ther 2021; 220:107717. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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18
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Raudenská M, Balvan J, Masařík M. Cell death in head and neck cancer pathogenesis and treatment. Cell Death Dis 2021; 12:192. [PMID: 33602906 PMCID: PMC7893032 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-021-03474-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Many cancer therapies aim to trigger apoptosis in cancer cells. Nevertheless, the presence of oncogenic alterations in these cells and distorted composition of tumour microenvironment largely limit the clinical efficacy of this type of therapy. Luckily, scientific consensus describes about 10 different cell death subroutines with different regulatory pathways and cancer cells are probably not able to avoid all of cell death types at once. Therefore, a focused and individualised therapy is needed to address the specific advantages and disadvantages of individual tumours. Although much is known about apoptosis, therapeutic opportunities of other cell death pathways are often neglected. Molecular heterogeneity of head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCC) causing unpredictability of the clinical response represents a grave challenge for oncologists and seems to be a critical component of treatment response. The large proportion of this clinical heterogeneity probably lies in alterations of cell death pathways. How exactly cells die is very important because the predominant type of cell death can have multiple impacts on the therapeutic response as cell death itself acts as a second messenger. In this review, we discuss the different types of programmed cell death (PCD), their connection with HNSCC pathogenesis and possible therapeutic windows that result from specific sensitivity to some form of PCD in some clinically relevant subgroups of HNSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Raudenská
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University / Kamenice 5, CZ-625 00, Brno, Czech Republic.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Mendel University in Brno, Zemedelska 1, CZ-613 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Balvan
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University / Kamenice 5, CZ-625 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Masařík
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University / Kamenice 5, CZ-625 00, Brno, Czech Republic. .,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Mendel University in Brno, Zemedelska 1, CZ-613 00, Brno, Czech Republic. .,Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University / Kamenice 5, CZ-625 00, Brno, Czech Republic. .,BIOCEV, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prumyslova 595, CZ-252 50, Vestec, Czech Republic.
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Della Torre L, Nebbioso A, Stunnenberg HG, Martens JHA, Carafa V, Altucci L. The Role of Necroptosis: Biological Relevance and Its Involvement in Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13040684. [PMID: 33567618 PMCID: PMC7914991 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13040684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary A new form of programmed necrosis called necroptosis has emerged. This new and well-documented type of programmed cell death is involved in several human diseases, including cancer. RIPK1, the main mediator of necroptosis, in response to different stimuli, activates several molecular pathways leading to inflammation, cell survival, or cell death. Targeting necroptosis could be a new strategy for advanced therapies. In this review, we focus on the biological relevance of this type of programmed cell death and its main executor RIPK1 in pathogenesis to find novel potential clinical intervention strategies. Abstract Regulated cell death mechanisms are essential for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. Evasion of cell death is one of the most important hallmarks of cancer. Necroptosis is a caspase independent form of regulated cell death, investigated as a novel therapeutic strategy to eradicate apoptosis resistant cancer cells. The process can be triggered by a variety of stimuli and is controlled by the activation of RIP kinases family as well as MLKL. The well-studied executor, RIPK1, is able to modulate key cellular events through the interaction with several proteins, acting as strategic crossroads of several molecular pathways. Little evidence is reported about its involvement in tumorigenesis. In this review, we summarize current studies on the biological relevance of necroptosis, its contradictory role in cancer and its function in cell fate control. Targeting necroptosis might be a novel therapeutic intervention strategy in anticancer therapies as a pharmacologically controllable event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Della Torre
- Department of Precision Medicine, Università Degli Studi Della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Naples, Italy; (L.D.T.); (A.N.)
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Angela Nebbioso
- Department of Precision Medicine, Università Degli Studi Della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Naples, Italy; (L.D.T.); (A.N.)
| | - Hendrik G. Stunnenberg
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | - Joost H. A. Martens
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Correspondence: (J.H.A.M.); (V.C.); (L.A.); Tel.: +31-024-3610525 (J.H.A.M.); +39-0815665682 (V.C.); +39-0815667569 (L.A.)
| | - Vincenzo Carafa
- Department of Precision Medicine, Università Degli Studi Della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Naples, Italy; (L.D.T.); (A.N.)
- Correspondence: (J.H.A.M.); (V.C.); (L.A.); Tel.: +31-024-3610525 (J.H.A.M.); +39-0815665682 (V.C.); +39-0815667569 (L.A.)
| | - Lucia Altucci
- Department of Precision Medicine, Università Degli Studi Della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Naples, Italy; (L.D.T.); (A.N.)
- Correspondence: (J.H.A.M.); (V.C.); (L.A.); Tel.: +31-024-3610525 (J.H.A.M.); +39-0815665682 (V.C.); +39-0815667569 (L.A.)
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20
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Regulated Necrotic Cell Death in Alternative Tumor Therapeutic Strategies. Cells 2020; 9:cells9122709. [PMID: 33348858 PMCID: PMC7767016 DOI: 10.3390/cells9122709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The treatment of tumors requires the induction of cell death. Radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy are administered to kill cancer cells; however, some cancer cells are resistant to these therapies. Therefore, effective treatments require various strategies for the induction of cell death. Regulated cell death (RCD) is systematically controlled by intracellular signaling proteins. Apoptosis and autophagy are types of RCD that are morphologically different from necrosis, while necroptosis, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis are morphologically similar to necrosis. Unlike necrosis, regulated necrotic cell death (RNCD) is caused by disruption of the plasma membrane under the control of specific proteins and induces tissue inflammation. Various types of RNCD, such as necroptosis, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis, have been used as therapeutic strategies against various tumor types. In this review, the mechanisms of necroptosis, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis are described in detail, and a potential effective treatment strategy to increase the anticancer effects on apoptosis- or autophagy-resistant tumor types through the induction of RNCD is suggested.
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21
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Üner G, Tag Ö, Erzurumlu Y, Kirmizibayrak PB, Bedir E. Identification of a Noncanonical Necrotic Cell Death Triggered via Enhanced Proteolysis by a Novel Sapogenol Derivative. Chem Res Toxicol 2020; 33:2880-2891. [PMID: 33136369 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Small molecules which activate distinct cell death pathways have promising high potential for anticancer drug research. Especially, regulated necrosis draws attention as an alternative cell death mechanism to overcome the drug resistance. Here, we report that a new semisynthetic saponin analogue (AG-08) triggers necrotic cell death with unprecedented pathways. AG-08-mediated necrosis depends on enhanced global proteolysis involving calpains, cathepsins, and caspases. Moreover, AG-08 generates several alterations in lysosomal function and physiology including membrane permeabilization, redistribution toward the perinuclear area, and lastly excessive tubulation. As a consequence of lysosomal impairment, the autophagic process was abolished via AG-08 treatment. Collectively, in addition to its ability to induce necrotic cell death, which makes AG-08 a promising candidate to cope with drug resistance, its unique activity mechanisms including autophagy/lysosome impairment and enhancement of proteolysis leading a strong death capacity emphasizes its potential for anticancer drug research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Göklem Üner
- Department of Bioengineering, Izmir Institute of Technology, 35430 Urla-İzmir, Turkey
| | - Özgür Tag
- Bionorm Natural Products Production & Marketing Corporation, ITOB, 35477 Menderes-İzmir, Turkey
| | - Yalçın Erzurumlu
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ege University, 35100 Bornova-İzmir, Turkey
| | | | - Erdal Bedir
- Department of Bioengineering, Izmir Institute of Technology, 35430 Urla-İzmir, Turkey
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22
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Sepand MR, Aliomrani M, Hasani-Nourian Y, Khalhori MR, Farzaei MH, Sanadgol N. Mechanisms and pathogenesis underlying environmental chemical-induced necroptosis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:37488-37501. [PMID: 32683625 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-09360-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Necroptosis is a regulated cell death that is governed by mixed lineage kinase domain-like, receptor-interacting serine-threonine kinase 3 and commonly displays with necrosis morphological characteristics. This study examined the molecular mechanisms involved in the chemical-induced necroptosis where a systematic evaluation of experimental studies addressing this issue is missing. We strictly reviewed all scientific reports related to our search terms including "necroptosis" or "programmed necrosis", "environmental chemicals" or "air pollutants" or "pesticides" or "nanoparticles" and "Medicines" from 2009 to 2019. Manuscripts that met the objective of this study were included for further evaluations. Studies showed that several pathological contexts like cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and inflammatory diseases were related to necroptosis. Furthermore, multiple chemical-induced cytotoxic effects, such as DNA damage, mitochondrial dysregulation, oxidative damage, lipid peroxidation, endoplasmic reticulum disruption, and inflammation are also associated with necroptosis. The main environmental exposures that are related to necroptosis are air pollutants (airborne particulate matter, cadmium, and hydrogen sulfide), nanoparticles (gold, silver, and silica), pesticides (endosulfan, cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos, and paraquat), and tobacco smoke. To sum up, air pollutants, pesticides, and nanoparticles could potentially affect human health via disruption of cell growth and induction of necroptosis. Understanding the exact molecular pathogenesis of these environmental chemicals needs further comprehensive research to provide innovative concepts for the prevention approaches and introduce novel targets for the amelioration of a range of human health problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad-Reza Sepand
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehdi Aliomrani
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology and Isfahan Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences and Health Services, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Yazdan Hasani-Nourian
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad-Reza Khalhori
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Mohammad-Hosein Farzaei
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Nima Sanadgol
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Zabol, Zabol, Iran.
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.
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23
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Huang X, Chen Z, Ni F, Ye X, Qian W. Shikonin overcomes drug resistance and induces necroptosis by regulating the miR-92a-1-5p/MLKL axis in chronic myeloid leukemia. Aging (Albany NY) 2020; 12:17662-17680. [PMID: 32927433 PMCID: PMC7521527 DOI: 10.18632/aging.103844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Development of resistance to tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) targeting the BCR/ABL fusion protein represents a major challenge in the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). Since apoptosis resistance is the fundamental mechanism impeding TKIs' therapeutic effects, alternative approaches that induce nonapoptotic cell death are being pursued to treat TKI-resistant CML. Induction of necroptosis, a distinct, caspase-independent form of programmed cell death, may be a valuable strategy in this respect. The present study shows that shikonin, an herbal compound used in traditional Chinese medicine, overcomes TKI resistance in BCR/ABL-positive CML cells by inducing necroptosis via activation of RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL signaling. This effect occurs both in vitro and in vivo and involves downregulation of miR-92a-1-5p, a poor-prognosis marker frequently overexpressed in leukemia patients. Based on gene expression experiments, we conclude that miR-92a-1-5p promotes CML progression by inhibiting MLKL expression. Accordingly, we show that antagomiR-mediated in vivo inhibition of miR-92a-1-5p reduces the growth of CML tumors in mice through necroptosis induction. Our research suggests that therapies that relieve MLKL suppression by targeting miR-92a-1-5p may represent a useful strategy to treat TKI-refractory CML.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianbo Huang
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Zhenzhen Chen
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China,Department of Hematology, Hangzhou First People’s Hospital, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Fan Ni
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China,Department of Hematology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Yiwu 322000, China
| | - Xiujin Ye
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Wenbin Qian
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China,Department of Hematology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China
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24
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In vitro analysis reveals necroptotic signaling does not provoke DNA damage or HPRT mutations. Cell Death Dis 2020; 11:680. [PMID: 32826875 PMCID: PMC7442655 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-02879-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Most anticancer drugs provoke apoptotic signaling by damaging DNA or other means. Genotoxic therapies may enhance a patient’s risk of developing “therapy-related cancers” due to the accumulation of oncogenic mutations that may occur in noncancerous cells. Mutations can also form upon apoptotic signaling due to sublethal caspase activity, implying that apoptosis activating drugs may also be oncogenic. Necroptosis is a different way of killing cancer cells: this version of caspase-independent cell death is characterized by receptor-interacting protein kinase-3 (RIPK3) and mixed lineage kinase-like domain protein (MLKL) activation, leading to cell membrane rupture and controlled cell lysis. The mutagenic potential of sublethal necroptotic signaling has not yet been directly investigated. Smac mimetics drugs, which activate apoptotic or necroptotic cell death, do not induce mutations but the mechanistic basis for this lack of mutagenic activity has not been determined. In this study, we compared the mutagenic potential of these two cell death pathways by engineering cells to activate either apoptotic or necroptotic signaling by exposing them to Smac mimetics with or without TNFα, and/or enforcing or preventing expression of apoptotic or necroptotic regulators. We discovered that sublethal concentrations of Smac mimetics in contexts that activated apoptotic signaling provoked DNA damage and mutations in surviving cells. Mutagenesis was dependent on executioner caspase activation of the nuclease CAD. In contrast, RIPK3- and MLKL-dependent necroptotic signaling following Smac mimetic treatment was not mutagenic. Likewise, DNA damage was not provoked in cells expressing a lethal constitutively active MLKL mutant. These data reveal that cells surviving sublethal necroptotic signaling do not sustain genomic damage and provide hope for a reduced risk of therapy-related malignancies in patients treated with necroptosis-inducing drugs.
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25
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Tang R, Xu J, Zhang B, Liu J, Liang C, Hua J, Meng Q, Yu X, Shi S. Ferroptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis in anticancer immunity. J Hematol Oncol 2020; 13:110. [PMID: 32778143 PMCID: PMC7418434 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-020-00946-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 693] [Impact Index Per Article: 173.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, cancer immunotherapy based on immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) has achieved considerable success in the clinic. However, ICIs are significantly limited by the fact that only one third of patients with most types of cancer respond to these agents. The induction of cell death mechanisms other than apoptosis has gradually emerged as a new cancer treatment strategy because most tumors harbor innate resistance to apoptosis. However, to date, the possibility of combining these two modalities has not been discussed systematically. Recently, a few studies revealed crosstalk between distinct cell death mechanisms and antitumor immunity. The induction of pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and necroptosis combined with ICIs showed synergistically enhanced antitumor activity, even in ICI-resistant tumors. Immunotherapy-activated CD8+ T cells are traditionally believed to induce tumor cell death via the following two main pathways: (i) perforin-granzyme and (ii) Fas-FasL. However, recent studies identified a new mechanism by which CD8+ T cells suppress tumor growth by inducing ferroptosis and pyroptosis, which provoked a review of the relationship between tumor cell death mechanisms and immune system activation. Hence, in this review, we summarize knowledge of the reciprocal interaction between antitumor immunity and distinct cell death mechanisms, particularly necroptosis, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis, which are the three potentially novel mechanisms of immunogenic cell death. Because most evidence is derived from studies using animal and cell models, we also reviewed related bioinformatics data available for human tissues in public databases, which partially confirmed the presence of interactions between tumor cell death and the activation of antitumor immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Tang
- Department of Pancreatic Surgery, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer Institute, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Pancreatic Cancer Institute, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jin Xu
- Department of Pancreatic Surgery, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer Institute, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Pancreatic Cancer Institute, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Bo Zhang
- Department of Pancreatic Surgery, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer Institute, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Pancreatic Cancer Institute, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiang Liu
- Department of Pancreatic Surgery, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer Institute, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Pancreatic Cancer Institute, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chen Liang
- Department of Pancreatic Surgery, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer Institute, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Pancreatic Cancer Institute, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jie Hua
- Department of Pancreatic Surgery, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer Institute, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Pancreatic Cancer Institute, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qingcai Meng
- Department of Pancreatic Surgery, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer Institute, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Pancreatic Cancer Institute, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xianjun Yu
- Department of Pancreatic Surgery, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, China.
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer Institute, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Pancreatic Cancer Institute, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Si Shi
- Department of Pancreatic Surgery, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, China.
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer Institute, No. 270 Dong'An Road, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Pancreatic Cancer Institute, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
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26
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Sprooten J, De Wijngaert P, Vanmeerbeerk I, Martin S, Vangheluwe P, Schlenner S, Krysko DV, Parys JB, Bultynck G, Vandenabeele P, Garg AD. Necroptosis in Immuno-Oncology and Cancer Immunotherapy. Cells 2020; 9:E1823. [PMID: 32752206 PMCID: PMC7464343 DOI: 10.3390/cells9081823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune-checkpoint blockers (ICBs) have revolutionized oncology and firmly established the subfield of immuno-oncology. Despite this renaissance, a subset of cancer patients remain unresponsive to ICBs due to widespread immuno-resistance. To "break" cancer cell-driven immuno-resistance, researchers have long floated the idea of therapeutically facilitating the immunogenicity of cancer cells by disrupting tumor-associated immuno-tolerance via conventional anticancer therapies. It is well appreciated that anticancer therapies causing immunogenic or inflammatory cell death are best positioned to productively activate anticancer immunity. A large proportion of studies have emphasized the importance of immunogenic apoptosis (i.e., immunogenic cell death or ICD); yet, it has also emerged that necroptosis, a programmed necrotic cell death pathway, can also be immunogenic. Emergence of a proficient immune profile for necroptosis has important implications for cancer because resistance to apoptosis is one of the major hallmarks of tumors. Putative immunogenic or inflammatory characteristics driven by necroptosis can be of great impact in immuno-oncology. However, as is typical for a highly complex and multi-factorial disease like cancer, a clear cause versus consensus relationship on the immunobiology of necroptosis in cancer cells has been tough to establish. In this review, we discuss the various aspects of necroptosis immunobiology with specific focus on immuno-oncology and cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny Sprooten
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Cell Stress & Immunity (CSI), KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Pieter De Wijngaert
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Cell Stress & Immunity (CSI), KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Isaure Vanmeerbeerk
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Cell Stress & Immunity (CSI), KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Shaun Martin
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Cellular Transport Systems, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Peter Vangheluwe
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Cellular Transport Systems, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Susan Schlenner
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dmitri V Krysko
- Department of Human Structure and Repair, Cell Death Investigation and Therapy Laboratory, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Pathophysiology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), 119146 Moscow, Russia
| | - Jan B Parys
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine and Leuven Kanker Instituut (LKI), Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Signaling, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Geert Bultynck
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine and Leuven Kanker Instituut (LKI), Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Signaling, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Peter Vandenabeele
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Inflammation Research, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
- Methusalem Program, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Abhishek D Garg
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Cell Stress & Immunity (CSI), KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
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27
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Thijssen R, Alvarez-Diaz S, Grace C, Gao MY, Segal DH, Xu Z, Strasser A, Huang DCS. Loss of RIPK3 does not impact MYC-driven lymphomagenesis or chemotherapeutic drug-induced killing of malignant lymphoma cells. Cell Death Differ 2020; 27:2531-2533. [PMID: 32555451 PMCID: PMC7370228 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-020-0576-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Thijssen
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3050, Australia
| | - Silvia Alvarez-Diaz
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3050, Australia
| | - Clea Grace
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,St Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, Fitzroy, VIC, 3065, Australia
| | - Ming-Yuan Gao
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3050, Australia
| | - David H Segal
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3050, Australia
| | - Zhen Xu
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3050, Australia
| | - Andreas Strasser
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia. .,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3050, Australia.
| | - David C S Huang
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia. .,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3050, Australia.
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28
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Oxidative resistance of leukemic stem cells and oxidative damage to hematopoietic stem cells under pro-oxidative therapy. Cell Death Dis 2020; 11:291. [PMID: 32341354 PMCID: PMC7184730 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-2488-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Leukemic stem cells (LSCs) and hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are both dependent on the hypoxic bone marrow (BM) microenvironment (also known as the BM niche). There is always fierce competition between the two types of cells, and the former exhibits a greater competitive advantage than the latter via multiple mechanisms. Under hypoxia, the dynamic balance between the generation and clearing of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) is conducive to maintaining a quiescent state of cells. Quiescent LSCs can reside well in the BM niche, avoiding attack by chemotherapeutic agents, which is the cause of chemotherapeutic resistance and relapse in leukemia. HSCs acquire energy mainly through anaerobic glycolysis, whereas LSCs achieve energy metabolism largely through mitochondrial oxidative respiration. Mitochondria are the primary site of ROS generation. Thus, in theory, mitochondria-mediated respiration will cause an increase in ROS generation in LSCs and a higher intracellular oxidative stress level. The sensitivity of the cells to pro-oxidant drugs increases as well, which allows for the selective clearing of LSCs by pro-oxidative therapy. However, HSCs are also highly sensitive to changes in ROS levels, and the toxic effects of pro-oxidant drugs on HSCs poses a major challenge to pro-oxidative therapy in leukemia. Given the above facts, we reviewed studies on the oxidative resistance of LSCs and the oxidative damage to HSCs under pro-oxidative therapy. An in-depth investigation into the oxidative stress status and regulatory mechanisms of LSCs and HSCs in hypoxic environments will promote our understanding of the survival strategy employed by LSCs and the mechanism of the oxidative damage to HSCs in the BM niche, thus facilitating individualized treatment of leukemia patients and helping eliminate LSCs without disturbing normal hematopoietic cells.
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C. Diaconu C, Gurban P, Mambet C, Chivu-Economescu M, G. Necula L, Matei L, Dragu D, Nedeianu S, I. Neagu A, Tatic A, Cristodor D, Bleotu C. Programmed Cell Death Deregulation in BCR-ABL1-Negative Myeloproliferative Neoplasms. PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH 2020. [DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.86062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/26/2024]
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BAD sensitizes breast cancer cells to docetaxel with increased mitotic arrest and necroptosis. Sci Rep 2020; 10:355. [PMID: 31942016 PMCID: PMC6962214 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-57282-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer patients are commonly treated with taxane (e.g. docetaxel) chemotherapy, despite poor outcomes and eventual disease relapse. We previously identified the Bcl-2-associated death promoter (BAD) as a prognostic indicator of good outcome in taxane-treated breast cancer patients. We also demonstrated that BAD expression in human breast carcinoma cells generated larger tumors in mouse xenograft models. These paradoxical results suggest that BAD-expressing tumors are differentially sensitive to taxane treatment. We validated this here and show that docetaxel therapy preferentially reduced growth of BAD-expressing xenograft tumors. We next explored the cellular mechanism whereby BAD sensitizes cells to docetaxel. Taxanes are microtubule inhibiting agents that cause cell cycle arrest in mitosis whereupon the cells either die in mitosis or aberrantly exit (mitotic slippage) and survive as polyploid cells. In response to docetaxel, BAD-expressing cells had lengthened mitotic arrest with a higher proportion of cells undergoing death in mitosis with decreased mitotic slippage. Death in mitosis was non-apoptotic and not dependent on Bcl-XL interaction or caspase activation. Instead, cell death was necroptotic, and dependent on ROS. These results suggest that BAD is prognostic for favourable outcome in response to taxane chemotherapy by enhancing necroptotic cell death and inhibiting the production of potentially chemoresistant polyploid cells.
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Lee YR, Hwang E, Jang YJ. Involvement of p38 Activation and Mitochondria in Death of Human Leukemia Cells Induced by an Agonistic Human Monoclonal Antibody Fab Specific to TRAIL Receptor 1. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20081967. [PMID: 31013630 PMCID: PMC6515105 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20081967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Revised: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) induces cancer cell death with minimal damage to normal cells; however, some cancer cells are resistant to TRAIL. TRAIL resistance may be overcome by agonistic antibodies to TRAIL receptors. In this study, we report the toxic effects of a novel recombinant agonistic human anti-TRAIL receptor 1 (DR4) monoclonal antibody Fab fragment, DR4-4, on various TRAIL-resistant and -sensitive cancer cell lines. The mechanisms of DR4-4 Fab-induced cell death in a human T cell leukemia cell line (Jurkat) were investigated using cell viability testing, immunoblotting, immunoassays, flow cytometry, and morphological observation. DR4-4 Fab-induced caspase-independent necrosis was observed to occur in Jurkat cells in association with p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation, cellular FLICE (FADD-like IL-1β-converting enzyme)-inhibitory protein degradation, decreased mitochondrial membrane potential, and increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production. Increased cytotoxic effects of DR4-4 Fab were observed in combination with TRAIL or γ-irradiation. Our results indicate that the novel DR4-4 Fab might overcome TRAIL-resistance and induce death in leukemia cells via cellular mechanisms different from those activated by TRAIL. DR4-4 Fab may have application as a potential therapeutic antibody fragment in single or combination therapy for cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- You-Ri Lee
- Department of Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.
| | - Eunjoo Hwang
- Department of Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.
| | - Young-Ju Jang
- Department of Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.
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