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Stary D, Bajda M. Structural Studies of the Taurine Transporter: A Potential Biological Target from the GABA Transporter Subfamily in Cancer Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:7339. [PMID: 39000444 PMCID: PMC11242302 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25137339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2024] [Revised: 06/28/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024] Open
Abstract
The taurine transporter (TauT, SLC6A6) is a member of the solute carrier 6 (SLC6) family, which plays multiple physiological roles. The SLC6 family is divided into four subfamilies: GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid), monoamine, glycine and neutral amino acid transporters. Proteins from the GABA group, including the taurine transporter, are primarily considered therapeutic targets for treating central nervous system disorders. However, recent studies have suggested that inhibitors of SLC6A6 could also serve as anticancer agents. Overexpression of TauT has been associated with the progression of colon and gastric cancer. The pool of known ligands of this transporter is limited and the exact spatial structure of taurine transporter remains unsolved. Understanding its structure could aid in the development of novel inhibitors. Therefore, we utilized homology modelling techniques to create models of TauT. Docking studies and molecular dynamics simulations were conducted to describe protein-ligand interactions. We compared the obtained information for TauT with literature data on other members of the GABA transporter group. Our in silico analysis allowed us to characterize the transporter structure and point out amino acids crucial for ligand binding: Glu406, Gly62 and Tyr138. The significance of selected residues was confirmed through structural studies of mutants. These results will aid in the development of novel taurine transporter inhibitors, which can be explored as anticancer agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorota Stary
- Department of Physicochemical Drug Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30-688 Cracow, Poland
- Doctoral School of Medical and Health Sciences, Jagiellonian University Medical College, św. Łazarza 16, 31-530 Cracow, Poland
| | - Marek Bajda
- Department of Physicochemical Drug Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30-688 Cracow, Poland
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2
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Sawant H, Selvaraj R, Manogaran P, Borthakur A. Intestinal Epithelial Creatine Transporter SLC6A8 Dysregulation in Inflammation and in Response to Adherent Invasive E. coli Infection. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6537. [PMID: 38928243 PMCID: PMC11204174 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25126537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Creatine transporter (CrT1) mediates cellular uptake of creatine (Cr), a nutrient pivotal in maintaining energy homeostasis in various tissues including intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). The impact of CrT1 deficiency on the pathogenesis of various psychiatric and neurological disorders has been extensively investigated. However, there are no studies on its regulation in IECs in health and disease. Current studies have determined differential expression of CrT1 along the length of the mammalian intestine and its dysregulation in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)-associated inflammation and Adherent Invasive E. coli (AIEC) infection. CrT1 mRNA and protein levels in normal intestines and their alterations in inflammation and following AIEC infection were determined in vitro in model IECs (Caco-2/IEC-6) and in vivo in SAMP1/YitFc mice, a model of spontaneous ileitis resembling human IBD. CrT1 is differentially expressed in different regions of mammalian intestines with its highest expression in jejunum. In vitro, CrT1 function (Na+-dependent 14C-Cr uptake), expression and promoter activity significantly decreased following TNFα/IL1β treatments and AIEC infection. SAMP1 mice and ileal organoids generated from SAMP1 mice also showed decreased CrT1 mRNA and protein compared to AKR controls. Our studies suggest that Cr deficiency in IECs secondary to CrT1 dysregulation could be a key factor contributing to IBD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Alip Borthakur
- Department of Clinical and Translational Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25701, USA; (H.S.); (R.S.); (P.M.)
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Rashidi A, Billingham LK, Zolp A, Chia TY, Silvers C, Katz JL, Park CH, Delay S, Boland L, Geng Y, Markwell SM, Dmello C, Arrieta VA, Zilinger K, Jacob IM, Lopez-Rosas A, Hou D, Castro B, Steffens AM, McCortney K, Walshon JP, Flowers MS, Lin H, Wang H, Zhao J, Sonabend A, Zhang P, Ahmed AU, Brat DJ, Heiland DH, Lee-Chang C, Lesniak MS, Chandel NS, Miska J. Myeloid cell-derived creatine in the hypoxic niche promotes glioblastoma growth. Cell Metab 2024; 36:62-77.e8. [PMID: 38134929 PMCID: PMC10842612 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2023.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is a malignancy dominated by the infiltration of tumor-associated myeloid cells (TAMCs). Examination of TAMC metabolic phenotypes in mouse models and patients with GBM identified the de novo creatine metabolic pathway as a hallmark of TAMCs. Multi-omics analyses revealed that TAMCs surround the hypoxic peri-necrotic regions of GBM and express the creatine metabolic enzyme glycine amidinotransferase (GATM). Conversely, GBM cells located within these same regions are uniquely specific in expressing the creatine transporter (SLC6A8). We hypothesized that TAMCs provide creatine to tumors, promoting GBM progression. Isotopic tracing demonstrated that TAMC-secreted creatine is taken up by tumor cells. Creatine supplementation protected tumors from hypoxia-induced stress, which was abrogated with genetic ablation or pharmacologic inhibition of SLC6A8. Lastly, inhibition of creatine transport using the clinically relevant compound, RGX-202-01, blunted tumor growth and enhanced radiation therapy in vivo. This work highlights that myeloid-to-tumor transfer of creatine promotes tumor growth in the hypoxic niche.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aida Rashidi
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Leah K Billingham
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Andrew Zolp
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Tzu-Yi Chia
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Caylee Silvers
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Joshua L Katz
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Cheol H Park
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Suzi Delay
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Lauren Boland
- Stanley Manne Children's Research Institute, Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Yuheng Geng
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Steven M Markwell
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 303 East Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Crismita Dmello
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Victor A Arrieta
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Kaylee Zilinger
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Irene M Jacob
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Aurora Lopez-Rosas
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - David Hou
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Brandyn Castro
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Alicia M Steffens
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Kathleen McCortney
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Jordain P Walshon
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Mariah S Flowers
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Hanchen Lin
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Hanxiang Wang
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Junfei Zhao
- Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Adam Sonabend
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Peng Zhang
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Atique U Ahmed
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Daniel J Brat
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 303 East Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Dieter H Heiland
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA; Microenvironment and Immunology Research Laboratory, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurosurgery, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany. German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), partner site Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Catalina Lee-Chang
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Maciej S Lesniak
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Navdeep S Chandel
- Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 North St. Clair Street, Suite 2330, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Jason Miska
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Lou and Jean Malnati Brain Tumor Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 676 N St. Clair, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
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Cheng S, Wan X, Yang L, Qin Y, Chen S, Liu Y, Sun Y, Qiu Y, Huang L, Qin Q, Cui X, Wu M, Liu M. RGCC-mediated PLK1 activity drives breast cancer lung metastasis by phosphorylating AMPKα2 to activate oxidative phosphorylation and fatty acid oxidation. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2023; 42:342. [PMID: 38102722 PMCID: PMC10722681 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-023-02928-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND More than 90% of the mortality of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) patients is attributed to cancer metastasis with organotropism. The lung is a frequent site of TNBC metastasis. However, the precise molecular mechanism for lung-specific metastasis of TNBC is not well understood. METHODS RNA sequencing was performed to identify patterns of gene expression associated with lung metastatic behavior using 4T1-LM3, MBA-MB-231-LM3, and their parental cells (4T1-P, MBA-MB-231-P). Expressions of RGCC, called regulator of cell cycle or response gene to complement 32 protein, were detected in TNBC cells and tissues by qRT-PCR, western blotting, and immunohistochemistry. Kinase activity assay was performed to evaluate PLK1 kinase activity. The amount of phosphorylated AMP-activated protein kinase α2 (AMPKα2) was detected by immunoblotting. RGCC-mediated metabolism was determined by UHPLC system. Oxidative phosphorylation was evaluated by JC-1 staining and oxygen consumption rate (OCR) assay. Fatty acid oxidation assay was conducted to measure the status of RGCC-mediated fatty acid oxidation. NADPH and ROS levels were detected by well-established assays. The chemical sensitivity of cells was evaluated by CCK8 assay. RESULTS RGCC is aberrantly upregulated in pulmonary metastatic cells. High level of RGCC is significantly related with lung metastasis in comparison with other organ metastases. RGCC can effectively promote kinase activity of PLK1, and the activated PLK1 phosphorylates AMPKα2 to facilitate TNBC lung metastasis. Mechanistically, the RGCC/PLK1/AMPKα2 signal axis increases oxidative phosphorylation of mitochondria to generate more energy, and promotes fatty acid oxidation to produce abundant NADPH. These metabolic changes contribute to sustaining redox homeostasis and preventing excessive accumulation of potentially detrimental ROS in metastatic tumor cells, thereby supporting TNBC cell survival and colonization during metastases. Importantly, targeting RGCC in combination with paclitaxel/carboplatin effectively suppresses pulmonary TNBC lung metastasis in a mouse model. CONCLUSIONS RGCC overexpression is significantly associated with lung-specific metastasis of TNBC. RGCC activates AMPKα2 and downstream signaling through RGCC-driven PLK1 activity to facilitate TNBC lung metastasis. The study provides implications for RGCC-driven OXPHOS and fatty acid oxidation as important therapeutic targets for TNBC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaojie Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medical Diagnostics, Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, No.1, Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Yu-Zhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Xueying Wan
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medical Diagnostics, Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, No.1, Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Yu-Zhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Liping Yang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400010, China
| | - Yilu Qin
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Sichuan-Chongqing Co-Construction for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Chongqing Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chongqing, 400021, China
| | - Shanchun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medical Diagnostics, Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, No.1, Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Yu-Zhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Yongcan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medical Diagnostics, Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, No.1, Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Yu-Zhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Yan Sun
- Department of Cell Biology and Medical Genetics, Basic Medical School, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Yuxiang Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medical Diagnostics, Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, No.1, Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Yu-Zhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Luyi Huang
- The Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Infectious Diseases Designated By the Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Qizhong Qin
- Experimental Teaching Center of Basic Medicine Science, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Xiaojiang Cui
- Department of Surgery, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, 91006, USA
| | - Mingjun Wu
- Institute of Life Science, Chongqing Medical University, No.1, Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Yu-Zhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China.
| | - Manran Liu
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medical Diagnostics, Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, No.1, Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Yu-Zhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China.
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Yang J, Ren B, Ren J, Yang G, Fang Y, Wang X, Zhou F, You L, Zhao Y. Epigenetic reprogramming-induced guanidinoacetic acid synthesis promotes pancreatic cancer metastasis and transcription-activating histone modifications. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2023; 42:155. [PMID: 37370109 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-023-02698-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) tends to undergo distant metastasis, especially liver metastasis, leading to a poor prognosis. Metabolic remodelling and epigenetic reprogramming are two important hallmarks of malignant tumours and participate in regulating PDAC tumorigenesis and metastasis. However, the interaction between these two processes during PDAC metastasis has not been fully elucidated. METHODS We performed metabolomics analysis to identify the critical metabolites associated with PDAC liver metastasis and focused on guanidinoacetic acid (GAA). Intracellular GAA content was significantly increased in liver metastatic PDAC cells compared to primary cancer cells in mouse xenograft tumour models. The effects of GAA supplementation and glycine amidinotransferase (GATM) knockdown on PDAC metastasis were assessed by analysing cell migration, filopodia formation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and in vivo metastasis in different cell and animal models. Next, ChIP‒qPCR, 3C‒qPCR, and CRISPRi/dCas9-KRAB experiments were used to validate the "epigenome-metabolome" mechanism. Finally, the results of in vitro approaches, including RNA-seq, CUT&RUN, RT‒qPCR, and western blot analyses, as well as luciferase reporter gene assay and transwell assay, revealed the GAA-c-Myc-HMGA axis and transcription-activating histone modifications reprogramming. RESULTS A high level of intracellular GAA was associated with PDAC liver metastasis. GAA could promote the migration, EMT, and liver metastasis of pancreatic cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Next, we explored the role of GATM-mediated de novo GAA synthesis in pancreatic cancer metastasis. High expression of GATM was positively correlated with advanced N stage in PDAC. Knockdown of GATM significantly reduced the intracellular level of GAA, suppressed EMT, and inhibited PDAC liver metastasis, and these effects were attenuated by GAA supplementation. Mechanistically, we identified the active enhancers looped to the Gatm gene locus that promoted GATM expression and PDAC liver metastasis. Furthermore, we found that GAA promoted cell migration and EMT by regulating c-Myc-mediated high mobility group AT-hook protein expression. Moreover, GAA increased the H3K4me3 modification level by upregulating histone methyltransferases, which induced the transcription of metastasis-related genes, including Myc. CONCLUSIONS These findings revealed the critical role of the epigenome-metabolome interaction in regulating PDAC liver metastasis and suggested potential therapeutic strategies targeting GAA metabolism and epigenetic regulatory mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinshou Yang
- Department of General Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Research in Pancreatic Tumor, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Ren
- Department of General Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Research in Pancreatic Tumor, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Ren
- Department of General Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Research in Pancreatic Tumor, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China
| | - Gang Yang
- Department of General Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Research in Pancreatic Tumor, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuan Fang
- Department of General Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Research in Pancreatic Tumor, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China
| | - Xing Wang
- Department of General Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Research in Pancreatic Tumor, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China
| | - Feihan Zhou
- Department of General Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Research in Pancreatic Tumor, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei You
- Department of General Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China.
- Key Laboratory of Research in Pancreatic Tumor, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yupei Zhao
- Department of General Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China.
- Key Laboratory of Research in Pancreatic Tumor, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China.
- National Science and Technology Key Infrastructure On Translational Medicine in Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Beijing, 100023, People's Republic of China.
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The Relationship between Histological Composition and Metabolic Profile in Breast Tumors and Peritumoral Tissue Determined with 1H HR-MAS NMR Spectroscopy. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15041283. [PMID: 36831625 PMCID: PMC9954108 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15041283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Breast tumors constitute the complex entities composed of cancer cells and stromal components. The compositional heterogeneity should be taken into account in bulk tissue metabolomics studies. The aim of this work was to find the relation between the histological content and 1H HR-MAS (high-resolution magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance) metabolic profiles of the tissue samples excised from the breast tumors and the peritumoral areas in 39 patients diagnosed with invasive breast carcinoma. The total number of the histologically verified specimens was 140. The classification accuracy of the OPLS-DA (Orthogonal Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis) model differentiating the cancerous from non-involved samples was 87% (sensitivity of 72.2%, specificity of 92.3%). The metabolic contents of the epithelial and stromal compartments were determined from a linear regression analysis of the levels of the evaluated compounds against the cancer cell fraction in 39 samples composed mainly of cancer cells and intratumoral fibrosis. The correlation coefficients between the levels of several metabolites and a tumor purity were found to be dependent on the tumor grade (I vs II/III). The comparison of the levels of the metabolites in the intratumoral fibrosis (obtained from the extrapolation of the regression lines to 0% cancer content) to those levels in the fibrous connective tissue beyond the tumors revealed a profound metabolic reprogramming in the former tissue. The joint analysis of the metabolic profiles of the stromal and epithelial compartments in the breast tumors contributes to the increased understanding of breast cancer biology.
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Stary D, Bajda M. Taurine and Creatine Transporters as Potential Drug Targets in Cancer Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043788. [PMID: 36835201 PMCID: PMC9964810 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer cells are characterized by uncontrolled growth, proliferation, and impaired apoptosis. Tumour progression could be related to poor prognosis and due to this fact, researchers have been working on novel therapeutic strategies and antineoplastic agents. It is known that altered expression and function of solute carrier proteins from the SLC6 family could be associated with severe diseases, including cancers. These proteins were noticed to play important physiological roles through transferring nutrient amino acids, osmolytes, neurotransmitters, and ions, and many of them are necessary for survival of the cells. Herein, we present the potential role of taurine (SLC6A6) and creatine (SLC6A8) transporters in cancer development as well as therapeutic potential of their inhibitors. Experimental data indicate that overexpression of analyzed proteins could be connected with colon or breast cancers, which are the most common types of cancers. The pool of known inhibitors of these transporters is limited; however, one ligand of SLC6A8 protein is currently tested in the first phase of clinical trials. Therefore, we also highlight structural aspects useful for ligand development. In this review, we discuss SLC6A6 and SLC6A8 transporters as potential biological targets for anticancer agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorota Stary
- Department of Physicochemical Drug Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9 St., 30-688 Cracow, Poland
- Doctoral School of Medical and Health Sciences, Jagiellonian University Medical College, św. Łazarza 16 St., 31-530 Cracow, Poland
| | - Marek Bajda
- Department of Physicochemical Drug Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9 St., 30-688 Cracow, Poland
- Correspondence:
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8
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Boccarelli A, Del Buono N, Esposito F. Cluster of resistance-inducing genes in MCF-7 cells by estrogen, insulin, methotrexate and tamoxifen extracted via NMF. Pathol Res Pract 2023; 242:154347. [PMID: 36738509 DOI: 10.1016/j.prp.2023.154347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Breast cancer has become a leading cause of death for women as the economy has grown and the number of women in the labor force has increased. Several biomarkers with diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic implications for breast cancer have been identified in studies, leading to therapeutic advances. Resistance, on the other hand, is one of clinical practice's limitations. In this paper, we use Nonnegative Matrix Factorization to automatically extract two gene signatures from gene expression profiles of wild-type and resistance MCF-7 cells, which were then investigated further using pathways analysis and proved useful in relating resistance pathways to breast cancer regardless of the stimulus that caused it. A few extracted genes (including MAOA, IL4I1, RRM2, DUT, NME4, and SUMO3) represent new elements in the functional network for resistance in MCF-7 ER+ breast cancer. As a result of this research, a better understanding of how resistance occurs or the pathways that contribute to it may allow more effective therapies to be developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelina Boccarelli
- Department of Precision and Regenerative Medicine and Polo Jonico, University of Bari Medical School, Piazza Giulio Cesare 11, Bari, Italy.
| | - Nicoletta Del Buono
- Department of Mathematics, University of Bari Aldo Moro, via Edoardo Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy; INDAM-GNCS Research Group, Piazzale Aldo Moro, 5, 00185 Roma, Italy.
| | - Flavia Esposito
- Department of Mathematics, University of Bari Aldo Moro, via Edoardo Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy; INDAM-GNCS Research Group, Piazzale Aldo Moro, 5, 00185 Roma, Italy.
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9
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Yang X, Li Q. Pan-Cancer Analysis of the Oncogenic and Immunological Role of Solute Carrier Family 6 Member 8 (SLC6A8). Front Genet 2022; 13:916439. [PMID: 36061183 PMCID: PMC9428493 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.916439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
There is mounting evidence on the implication of SLC6A8 in the initiation and progression of human cancers. However, a comprehensive understanding of the role of SLC6A8 in pan-cancer remains elusive yet. Bioinformatics analysis was performed to investigate the expression and mutation profiles of SLC6A8 in cancers, and the association of SLC6A8 expression with cancer patients’ survival and immune cell infiltration. In general, SLC6A8 is significantly upregulated across multiple cancers. SLC6A8 expression was inconsistently prognostic in different types of cancer, albeit associated with favorable survival in the vast majority of cancers. The receiver operating characteristic curves showed that SLC6A8 was relatively accurate in identifying possible cancer patients. The genetic alteration of SLC6A8, including mutation, amplification and deletion, was frequently present across various types of cancer. Mechanistically, SLC6A8 might be involved in tumorigenesis through “carbon metabolism” and “HIF-1 signaling pathway.” Besides, SLC6A8 expression had significant correlation with immune checkpoints genes and tumor-infiltrating immune cell abundances. The present study offers a novel insight into the roles of SLC6A8 in the oncogenesis and development of multiple common cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Yang
- Department of Surgery, People’s Hospital of Deyang City, Deyang, China
| | - Qiao Li
- Department of Pathology, People’s Hospital of Deyang City, Deyang, China
- *Correspondence: Qiao Li,
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10
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Patel R, Ford CA, Rodgers L, Rushworth LK, Fleming J, Mui E, Zhang T, Watson D, Lynch V, Mackay G, Sumpton D, Sansom OJ, Vande Voorde J, Leung HY. Cyclocreatine Suppresses Creatine Metabolism and Impairs Prostate Cancer Progression. Cancer Res 2022; 82:2565-2575. [PMID: 35675421 PMCID: PMC9381098 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-21-1301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the second most common cause of cancer mortality in men worldwide. Applying a novel genetically engineered mouse model (GEMM) of aggressive prostate cancer driven by deficiency of the tumor suppressors PTEN and Sprouty2 (SPRY2), we identified enhanced creatine metabolism as a central component of progressive disease. Creatine treatment was associated with enhanced cellular basal respiration in vitro and increased tumor cell proliferation in vivo. Stable isotope tracing revealed that intracellular levels of creatine in prostate cancer cells are predominantly dictated by exogenous availability rather than by de novo synthesis from arginine. Genetic silencing of creatine transporter SLC6A8 depleted intracellular creatine levels and reduced the colony-forming capacity of human prostate cancer cells. Accordingly, in vitro treatment of prostate cancer cells with cyclocreatine, a creatine analog, dramatically reduced intracellular levels of creatine and its derivatives phosphocreatine and creatinine and suppressed proliferation. Supplementation with cyclocreatine impaired cancer progression in the PTEN- and SPRY2-deficient prostate cancer GEMMs and in a xenograft liver metastasis model. Collectively, these results identify a metabolic vulnerability in prostate cancer and demonstrate a rational therapeutic strategy to exploit this vulnerability to impede tumor progression. SIGNIFICANCE Enhanced creatine uptake drives prostate cancer progression and confers a metabolic vulnerability to treatment with the creatine analog cyclocreatine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lisa Rodgers
- CRUK Beatson Institute, Glasgow, United Kingdom.,Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Linda K. Rushworth
- CRUK Beatson Institute, Glasgow, United Kingdom.,Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | - Ernest Mui
- CRUK Beatson Institute, Glasgow, United Kingdom.,Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Tong Zhang
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - David Watson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Victoria Lynch
- Department of Histopathology, Queen Elizabeth University Hospital, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Owen J. Sansom
- CRUK Beatson Institute, Glasgow, United Kingdom.,Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Johan Vande Voorde
- CRUK Beatson Institute, Glasgow, United Kingdom.,Corresponding Authors: Hing Y. Leung and Johan Vande Voorde, CRUK Beatson Institute, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G61 1BD, United Kingdom. Phone: 44-0-141-330-3953; E-mail: and
| | - Hing Y. Leung
- CRUK Beatson Institute, Glasgow, United Kingdom.,Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom.,Corresponding Authors: Hing Y. Leung and Johan Vande Voorde, CRUK Beatson Institute, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G61 1BD, United Kingdom. Phone: 44-0-141-330-3953; E-mail: and
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11
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Fan Y, Zhou Y, Lou M, Gao Z, Li X, Yuan K. SLC6A8 is a Potential Biomarker for Poor Prognosis in Lung Adenocarcinoma. Front Genet 2022; 13:845373. [PMID: 35692837 PMCID: PMC9185669 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.845373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Recent studies have demonstrated that creatine can promote tumor metastasis and has implications for immune cell function. SLC6A8 encodes a membrane protein that can transport creatine inside and outside the cell. However, there are currently no studies of SLC6A8 in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD).Methods: In this study, the expression of SLC6A8 in LUAD was analyzed using the Oncomine database, the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, and immunohistochemical staining analysis. Survival analysis of patients with LUAD was performed using the cBioPortal and the Kaplan-Meier Plotter websites and clinical follow-up data. An analysis of the association between SLC6A8 and the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) of LUAD was performed through the TISIDB database and estimation of stromal and immune cells in malignant tumor tissues using expression data (ESTIMATE) algorithm. Then, based on the curated list of SLC6A8-related immunomodulators, three genes (NT5E, CD40LG, CD80) were selected to construct SLC6A8-related immune signatures to further evaluate the immune aspect of LUAD prognosis.Results: Our studies indicated that SLC6A8 was overexpressed in LUAD, and the high expression of SLC6A8 was associated with poor survival. Genetic alteration of SLC6A8 was also associated with a poorer prognosis. Furthermore, multivariate Cox analysis indicated that SLC6A8 could be used as an independent risk prognostic factor. Then, immune infiltration analysis indicated that SLC6A8 was also strongly associated with poor prognosis in the TIME of LUAD. A multivariate Cox proportional hazard model was then constructed, and was shown effective at identifying high-risk patients. Univariate and multivariate Cox analysis showed that the risk scoring of the model was an independent prognostic risk factor in LUAD.Conclusion:SLC6A8 may serve as a biomarker for poor prognosis in LUAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongfei Fan
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Affiliated Changzhou No. 2 People’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou, China
| | - Yong Zhou
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Affiliated Changzhou No. 2 People’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou, China
| | - Ming Lou
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Affiliated Changzhou No. 2 People’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou, China
| | - Zhaojia Gao
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Affiliated Changzhou No. 2 People’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou, China
- Heart and Lung Disease Laboratory, The Affiliated Changzhou No. 2 People’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou, China
| | - Xinwei Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Kai Yuan
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Affiliated Changzhou No. 2 People’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou, China
- Heart and Lung Disease Laboratory, The Affiliated Changzhou No. 2 People’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Kai Yuan,
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12
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Zhang L, Bu P. The two sides of creatine in cancer. Trends Cell Biol 2021; 32:380-390. [PMID: 34895811 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Creatine is a nitrogen-containing organic acid naturally existing in mammals. It can be converted into phosphocreatine to provide energy for muscle and nerve tissues. Creatine and its analog, cyclocreatine, have been considered cancer suppressive metabolites due to their effects on suppression of subcutaneous cancer growth. Recently, emerging studies have demonstrated the promoting effect of creatine on cancer metastasis. Orthotopic mouse models revealed that creatine promoted invasion and metastasis of pancreatic cancer, colorectal cancer, and breast cancer. Thus, creatine possesses considerably complicated roles in cancer progression. In this review, we systematically summarized the role of creatine in tumor progression, which will call to caution when considering creatine supplementation to clinically treat cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liwen Zhang
- Key Laboratory of RNA Biology, Key Laboratory of Protein and Peptide Pharmaceutical, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Pengcheng Bu
- Key Laboratory of RNA Biology, Key Laboratory of Protein and Peptide Pharmaceutical, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.
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13
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Ghirardini E, Calugi F, Sagona G, Di Vetta F, Palma M, Battini R, Cioni G, Pizzorusso T, Baroncelli L. The Role of Preclinical Models in Creatine Transporter Deficiency: Neurobiological Mechanisms, Biomarkers and Therapeutic Development. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12081123. [PMID: 34440297 PMCID: PMC8392480 DOI: 10.3390/genes12081123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Creatine (Cr) Transporter Deficiency (CTD) is an X-linked metabolic disorder, mostly caused by missense mutations in the SLC6A8 gene and presenting with intellectual disability, autistic behavior, and epilepsy. There is no effective treatment for CTD and patients need lifelong assistance. Thus, the research of novel intervention strategies is a major scientific challenge. Animal models are an excellent tool to dissect the disease pathogenetic mechanisms and drive the preclinical development of therapeutics. This review illustrates the current knowledge about Cr metabolism and CTD clinical aspects, with a focus on mainstay diagnostic and therapeutic options. Then, we discuss the rodent models of CTD characterized in the last decade, comparing the phenotypes expressed within clinically relevant domains and the timeline of symptom development. This analysis highlights that animals with the ubiquitous deletion/mutation of SLC6A8 genes well recapitulate the early onset and the complex pathological phenotype of the human condition. Thus, they should represent the preferred model for preclinical efficacy studies. On the other hand, brain- and cell-specific conditional mutants are ideal for understanding the basis of CTD at a cellular and molecular level. Finally, we explain how CTD models might provide novel insight about the pathogenesis of other disorders, including cancer.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Biomarkers/metabolism
- Brain Diseases, Metabolic, Inborn/metabolism
- Brain Diseases, Metabolic, Inborn/pathology
- Brain Diseases, Metabolic, Inborn/therapy
- Central Nervous System/pathology
- Creatine/deficiency
- Creatine/metabolism
- Disease Models, Animal
- Humans
- Mental Retardation, X-Linked/metabolism
- Mental Retardation, X-Linked/pathology
- Mental Retardation, X-Linked/therapy
- Mice
- Plasma Membrane Neurotransmitter Transport Proteins/deficiency
- Plasma Membrane Neurotransmitter Transport Proteins/metabolism
- Rats
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsa Ghirardini
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, I-56128 Pisa, Italy; (E.G.); (G.S.); (R.B.); (G.C.)
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council (CNR), I-56124 Pisa, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.V.); (M.P.); (T.P.)
| | - Francesco Calugi
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council (CNR), I-56124 Pisa, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.V.); (M.P.); (T.P.)
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health NEUROFARBA, University of Florence, I-50135 Florence, Italy
| | - Giulia Sagona
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, I-56128 Pisa, Italy; (E.G.); (G.S.); (R.B.); (G.C.)
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health NEUROFARBA, University of Florence, I-50135 Florence, Italy
| | - Federica Di Vetta
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council (CNR), I-56124 Pisa, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.V.); (M.P.); (T.P.)
- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, I-56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Martina Palma
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council (CNR), I-56124 Pisa, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.V.); (M.P.); (T.P.)
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health NEUROFARBA, University of Florence, I-50135 Florence, Italy
| | - Roberta Battini
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, I-56128 Pisa, Italy; (E.G.); (G.S.); (R.B.); (G.C.)
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, I-56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Giovanni Cioni
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, I-56128 Pisa, Italy; (E.G.); (G.S.); (R.B.); (G.C.)
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, I-56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Tommaso Pizzorusso
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council (CNR), I-56124 Pisa, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.V.); (M.P.); (T.P.)
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health NEUROFARBA, University of Florence, I-50135 Florence, Italy
| | - Laura Baroncelli
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, I-56128 Pisa, Italy; (E.G.); (G.S.); (R.B.); (G.C.)
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council (CNR), I-56124 Pisa, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.V.); (M.P.); (T.P.)
- Correspondence:
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