Implications of SARS-COV-2 infection in the diagnosis and management of the pediatric gastrointestinal disease

SARS-CoV-2 Infection and COVID-19 in Children

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is common in children, and clinical manifestations can vary depending on age, underlying disease, and vaccination status. Most children will have asymptomatic or mild infection, but certain baseline characteristics can increase the risk of moderate to severe disease. The following article will provide an overview of the clinical manifestations of coronavirus disease 2019 in children, including the post-infectious phenomenon called multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children. Currently available treatment and prophylaxis strategies will be outlined, with the caveat that new therapeutics and clinical efficacy data are constantly on the horizon.

Relationship between gastrointestinal symptoms and COVID-19 infection in the pediatric population: a scoping review

OBJECTIVE

To map the evidence in the literature about the relationship between gastrointestinal symptoms and COVID-19 in the pediatric population.

METHOD

This is a scoping review following the recommendations of the Joanna Briggs Institute and PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation. The search was carried out on the following bases: Embase, Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, LILACS, CINAHL, Scielo, Web of Science and Virtual Health Library Portal, between July and August 2023. Original studies available in full, in any language, were included.

RESULTS

Ten studies were chosen that pointed to three premises: (1) the ACE2 receptor is found in the epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract; (2) gastrointestinal symptoms are mediated by stress and infection is justified by the gut-brain axis; (3) it develops the process of Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in children, affecting the gastrointestinal tract.

CONCLUSION

The synthesis of evidence provided three assumptions which guide the origin of gastrointestinal symptoms. The identification of gastrointestinal symptoms in children affected by COVID-19 can assist in the clinical approach and management of care and treatments.

SARS-CoV-2 Infection and COVID-19 in Children

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is common in children, and clinical manifestations can vary depending on age, underlying disease, and vaccination status. Most children will have asymptomatic or mild infection, but certain baseline characteristics can increase the risk of moderate to severe disease. The following article will provide an overview of the clinical manifestations of coronavirus disease 2019 in children, including the post-infectious phenomenon called multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children. Currently available treatment and prophylaxis strategies will be outlined, with the caveat that new therapeutics and clinical efficacy data are constantly on the horizon.

Examining the associations between COVID-19 infection and pediatric type 1 diabetes

INTRODUCTION

The COVID-19 pandemic represents an unprecedented challenge for public health worldwide, not only for the very high number of cases and deaths but also due to a wide variety of indirect consequences. Among these, the possible relationship between SARS-CoV-2 infection and type 1 diabetes (T1D) in pediatric age has aroused notable interest in the scientific community.

AREAS COVERED

This perspective article aims to focus on the epidemiological trend of T1D during the pandemic, the diabetogenic role of SARS-CoV-2, and the influence of preexisting T1D on COVID-19 outcomes.

EXPERT OPINION

The incidence of T1D has considerably changed during the COVID-19 pandemic, but any direct role of SARS-CoV-2 is uncertain. It is more likely that SARS-CoV-2 infection acts as an accelerator of pancreatic β-cell immunological destruction, which is activated by known viral triggers whose spread has been abnormal during these pandemic years. Another interesting aspect to consider is the role of immunization as a potential protective factor both for T1D development and the risk of severe outcomes in already diagnosed patients. Future studies are still required to address unmet needs, including the early use of antiviral drugs to reduce the risk of metabolic decompensation in children with T1D.

Pediatric Gastroenterology and Hepatology in Italy before and after the COVID-19: Lessons learned and management changes by SIGENP

Around the world, the 2019 Coronavirus disease (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has raised serious public health problems and major medical challenges. The Italian Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (SIGENP) published several papers on the impact of COVID-19 on the current management, diagnosis, and treatment of acute and chronic gastrointestinal, hepatic, immune-mediated, and functional disorders. The present article summarizes the most relevant SIGENP reports and consensus during and after the peak of the COVID-19 outbreak, including the diagnosis and treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), indications and timing of digestive endoscopy, and insights into the novel hepatitis.

Associations between gastrointestinal infection and urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations in US children and adolescents from NHANES 2005-2016

The purpose of this study was to evaluate at the link between gastrointestinal illness and urine phthalate metabolite concentrations in children and adolescents in the United States between 2005 and 2016. A total of 4008 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) participants had urine samples obtained during the survey and self-reported their gastrointestinal functional status over the previous week. High performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC/MS-MS) was used to identify twelve phthalate metabolites in urine samples. The link between PAE concentrations and gastrointestinal illnesses was investigated using logistic regression, which was controlled for possible confounders. The combined and independent effects of PAEs on gastrointestinal illnesses were investigated using Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression (BKMR) and quantile-based g-computation (qgcomp). In children and adolescents, the prevalence of gastrointestinal infection was 9.0%. One log-unit increase in urinary concentrations was associated with an increased risk of gastrointestinal infection for monocarboxyoctyl phthalate (MCOP) (adjusted odd ratio (aOR) = 1.36, 95 percent confidence interval (95%ci): 1.08, 1.62), mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) (aOR = 1.18, 95 percent CI: 1.05, 1.32) and mono(2-eth The mixed exposure model findings revealed that the combined effect of PAEs was substantially linked with gastrointestinal infection; exposure to the combination of PAEs was positively associated with the risk of gastrointestinal infection. In the BKMR model, the exposure to the mixture of PAEs was positively associated with the risk of gastrointestinal infection. In qgcomp, a substantial positive correlation between PAEs and gastrointestinal illnesses was identified (OR = 1.16, 95 percent CI: 1.05, 1.28). MCOP and MEHP may be the major contributors after controlling for other PAE homologs. These associations were more pronounced in overweight and obese children and adolescents. Mixed exposure to phthalates (PAEs) in children and adolescents was significantly associated with gastrointestinal infections, with MCOP and MEHP accounting for the major proportions. These associations were more pronounced in overweight and obese children and adolescents.

The year 2021 in COVID-19 pandemic in children

In this article, the developments in the field of COVID-19 pandemic published in the Italian Journal of Pediatrics in 2021 are reflected. We describe progresses in SARS-CoV-2 transmission route, clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment, and access to health care facilities in children. They led to substantial changes in the clinical approach.

Celiac Disease and Targeting the Molecular Mechanisms of Autoimmunity in COVID Pandemic

Celiac disease (CD) comprises over 1% of the world’s population and is a chronic multisystem immune-mediated condition manifested by digestive and/or extradigestive symptoms caused by food intake of gluten. This review looked at the risk of children diagnosed with CD developing SARS-CoV-2 infection and possible severe forms of COVID-19. A better understanding of the interaction and effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection in CD is very important, as is the role of environmental and genetic factors, but especially the molecular mechanisms involved in modulating intestinal permeability with impact on autoimmunity. CD inspired the testing of a zonulin antagonist for the fulminant form of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) and paved the way for the discovery of new molecules to regulate the small intestine barrier function and immune responses. Original published works on COVID-19 and CD, new data and points of view have been analyzed because this dangerous virus SARS-CoV-2 is still here and yet influencing our lives. Medical science continues to focus on all uncertainties triggered by SARS-CoV-2 infection and its consequences, including in CD. Although the COVID-19 pandemic seems to be gradually extinguishing, there is a wealth of information and knowledge gained over the last two years and important life lessons to analyze, as well as relevant conclusions to be drawn to deal with future pandemics. Zonulin is being studied extensively in immunoengineering as an adjuvant to improving the absorption of new drugs and oral vaccines.

Celiac Disease and Targeting the Molecular Mechanisms of Autoimmunity in COVID Pandemic

Celiac disease (CD) comprises over 1% of the world's population and is a chronic multisystem immune-mediated condition manifested by digestive and/or extradigestive symptoms caused by food intake of gluten. This review looked at the risk of children diagnosed with CD developing SARS-CoV-2 infection and possible severe forms of COVID-19. A better understanding of the interaction and effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection in CD is very important, as is the role of environmental and genetic factors, but especially the molecular mechanisms involved in modulating intestinal permeability with impact on autoimmunity. CD inspired the testing of a zonulin antagonist for the fulminant form of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) and paved the way for the discovery of new molecules to regulate the small intestine barrier function and immune responses. Original published works on COVID-19 and CD, new data and points of view have been analyzed because this dangerous virus SARS-CoV-2 is still here and yet influencing our lives. Medical science continues to focus on all uncertainties triggered by SARS-CoV-2 infection and its consequences, including in CD. Although the COVID-19 pandemic seems to be gradually extinguishing, there is a wealth of information and knowledge gained over the last two years and important life lessons to analyze, as well as relevant conclusions to be drawn to deal with future pandemics. Zonulin is being studied extensively in immunoengineering as an adjuvant to improving the absorption of new drugs and oral vaccines.

SARS-CoV-2: Reinfection after 18 Months of a Previous Case with Multiple Negative Nasopharyngeal Swab Tests and Positive Fecal Molecular Test

This short communication describes the reinfection after nearly 18 months of the same patient who was previously infected with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and who showed multiple negative real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) results by nasal swabs for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) but positive results on a fecal sample. We previously noted how, in the presence of symptoms suggestive of pneumonia, visible on a chest computed tomography (CT) scan and confirmed by fecal molecular testing, it was possible to draw the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection. One year later, the same patient was again affected by SARS-CoV-2. This time, the first antigenic nasal swab showed readily positive results. However, the patient’s clinical course appeared to be more attenuated, showing no signs of pulmonary involvement in the radiographic examinations performed. This case shows a novelty in the pulmonary radiological evaluation of new SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Gastrointestinal coronavirus disease 2019 manifestations in childhood

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW

The pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has emerged and caused a massive global health crisis. The aim of this review is first, to provide the latest evidence on what is known about the pathophysiology and the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and then to focus on the manifestations of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract in children with COVID-19. Lastly, we summarise the impact of COVID-19 on patients with preexisting GI diseases.

RECENT FINDINGS

Even though the virus is mostly transmitted from human to human via respiratory droplets, ACE2 is known to be expressed throughout the GI tract, and SARS-CoV-2 ribonucleic acid has been isolated from patients' stools. GI symptoms including abdominal pain, diarrhoea and vomiting are frequently reported in paediatric patients. Interestingly, a small number of patients seem to exhibit solely GI symptoms. In addition, a multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) related to SARS-COV-2 described in children, has a high rate of GI involvement. Several etiopathogenetic mechanisms have been postulated to explain the GI involvement of COVID-19.

SUMMARY

Clinicians should not underestimate or disregard these early or mild GI symptoms, because the patients may be infected and transmit the virus, or develop a more severe condition such as MIS-C.

Pediatric Functional Abdominal Pain Disorders following COVID-19

BACKGROUND

Functional abdominal pain disorders (FAPD) are a group of functional gastrointestinal disorders with multifactorial etiology and are subclassified using Rome IV criteria into a series of clinically distinct entities represented by irritable bowel syndrome, functional dyspepsia, abdominal migraine and functional abdominal pain that is not otherwise specified. Digestive functional disorders associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) may be mediated by the involvement of complex pathogenic mechanisms, which have been under investigation in children since the beginning of the coronavirus disease pandemic (COVID-19).

METHODS

In this retrospective, observational descriptive and analytical study, we investigated the presence of chronical functional abdominal pain in preschool children (4-6 years old) from the south-west of Romania in the pre-pandemic (18 cases) and COVID-19 pandemic period (34 cases), as well as the association with the COVID-19 positive and COVID-19 negative statuses, gender, environment origin, and viral infection-associated symptoms. Age-specific Rome IV criteria were used to diagnose functional abdominal pain. We performed an integrated statistical analysis of the results utilizing an electronic database in which we compared the data in order to assess the impact of COVID-19 on the clinical-epidemiological parameters analyzed.

RESULTS

In the pre-pandemic group, irritable bowel syndrome predominated (77.8%), followed by functional dyspepsia (22.2%), the other types of functional abdominal pain being absent, while for the pandemic group, irritable bowel syndrome was the most common (79.4%), followed by abdominal migraine (11.8%), abdominal dyspepsia (5.9%) and functional abdominal pain not otherwise specified (2.9%). We found a female/male ratio difference of 0.84 and an urban/rural ratio of 1.83 in favor of the pandemic group. These discrepancies were mainly caused by the differences between the COVID-19 positive and negative pandemic groups, where we observed statistical association of the positive pandemic group with IBS and urban environment, and a tendency of FAPDs diagnostic mainly with males. The predominant symptoms associated with COVID-19 positive cases were digestive (60.9%) or respiratory (39.1%).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrates viral-mediated sensitivity of the gastrointestinal tract in preschool children, considering different clinical-epidemiological profiles related to the prevalence of FAPD and according to gender and environment origin, while the contribution of the pandemic context remains to be demonstrated in larger studies.

Impact of COVID-19 in Pediatric Patients and Young Adults with Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Introduction

Acute COVID-19 in pediatric and young adult patients tends to be milder in severity compared to adult infection. Recent studies seem to show that inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients are at no greater risk than the general population. We aim to describe our experience in the follow-up of pediatric and young adult patients with IBD followed in our center and determine possible risk factors of said population for severe COVID-19.

Methods

We performed a retrospective study of all patients aged under 25 years followed for IBD at the Unit of Pediatric Gastroenterology in a tertiary center between December 2019 and April 2021 evaluating the incidence of COVID-19 and characterization of positive cases.

Results

Of the 268 participants, 24 had COVID-19: the mean age was 19 years old and gender had an equal distribution; 75% (n = 18) had Crohn's disease, whereas only 25% (n = 6) had ulcerative colitis. Most patients were in clinical remission (n = 21). The majority of patients were under treatment with a tumor necrosis factor (TNF) antagonist (58%, n = 14), mainly infliximab, and most had no comorbidities other than IBD (83%). Regarding COVID-19, 17% of the patients were asymptomatic while the rest had only mild symptoms. There were no reported gastrointestinal complaints, no complications nor hospitalizations. Most patients did not require interruption of their IBD treatment.

Conclusions

Our data suggest that pediatric and young adult IBD patients have a low risk for complications and hospitalization, regardless of IBD treatment. We believe that this experience is encouraging and allows for safe counseling regarding treatment options and school attendance in pediatric and young adult IBD patients.

Has COVID-19 lockdown improved glycaemic control in pediatric patients with type 1 diabetes? An analysis of continuous glucose monitoring metrics

AIMS

Our observational study aimed to evaluate the impact of the lockdown period due to 2019 Coronavirus disease pandemic on glycaemic control in a cohort of paediatric patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D).

METHODS

Eighty-five patients with T1D aged 5-18 years using continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) systems were enrolled. Demographic and clinical data, including glucose metrics generated by CGM-specific web-based cloud platforms, were collected in three different periods (pre-lockdown phase, lockdown phase, and post-lockdown phase) of 90 days each and were statistically analysed.

RESULTS

During the lockdown period, a clear improvement in almost all CGM metrics (time in range, time above range, coefficient of variation, and glucose management indicator) was observed in our study population, regardless of age and insulin type treatment. In the months following lockdown, maintaining satisfactory diabetes outcomes was confirmed only in younger patients (aged 5-9 years) and in those individuals on hybrid closed loop therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

The increasing use of innovative technological devices together with data sharing systems and interaction with multidisciplinary diabetes team through telemedicine allowed paediatric patients with T1D to improve glucose metrics during the lockdown period. However, our findings showed that the achievement of better glycaemic control was transient for most patients.