Early changes of muscle membrane properties in porcine faecal peritonitis

A scoping review of preclinical intensive care unit-acquired weakness models

Background

Animal models focusing on neuromuscular outcomes are crucial for understanding the mechanisms of intensive care unit-acquired weakness (ICU-AW) and exploring potential innovative prevention and treatment strategies.

Aim

To analyse and evaluate preclinical ICU-AW models.

Methods

We manually searched five English and four Chinese databases from 1 January 2002, to 1 February 2024, and reviewed related study references. Full-text publications describing animal models of muscle weakness and atrophy in critical illness were included. Detailed information about model types, animal species, sex, age, induction methods, outcome measures, drawbacks and strengths was extracted from each included study.

Results

A total of 3,451 citations were initially retrieved, with 84 studies included in the final analysis. The most frequently studied animal model included rodents (86.9%), 64.3% of which were male animals. ICU-AW animal models were mostly induced by comprehensive intensive care unit (ICU) interventions (38.1%) and sepsis (51.2%). Most studies focused on limb muscles (66.7%), diaphragm muscles (21.4%) or both (9.5%). Reported outcomes primarily included muscular pathological changes (83.3%), electrophysiological examinations of muscles (57.1%) and animal grip strength (16.6%). However, details such as animal age, mortality data, experimental design, randomisation, blinding, sample size and interventions for the experimental group and/or control group were inadequately reported.

Conclusion

Many preclinical models are used to study ICU-AW, but the reporting of methodological details is often incomplete. Although current ICU animal models can mimic the characteristics of human ICU-AW, there is no standard model. Future preclinical studies should develop a standard ICU-AW animal model to enhance reproducibility and improve scientific rigor in exploring the mechanisms and potential treatment of ICU-AW.

Muscle excitability testing

Conventional electrophysiological methods, i.e. nerve conduction studies and electromyography are suitable methods for the diagnosis of neuromuscular disorders, however, they provide limited information about muscle fibre membrane properties and underlying disease mechanisms. Muscle excitability testing is a technique that provides in vivo information about muscle fibre membrane properties such as membrane potential and ion channel function. Since the 1960s, various methodologies have been suggested to examine muscle membrane properties but technical difficulties have limited its use. In 2009, an automated, fast and simple application, the so-called multi-fibre muscle velocity recovery cycles (MVRC) has accelerated the use of muscle excitability testing. Later, frequency ramp and repetitive stimulation protocols have been developed. Though this method has been used mainly in research for revealing disease mechanisms across a broad range of neuromuscular disorders, it may have additional diagnostic uses; value has been shown particularly in muscle channelopathies. This review will provide a description of the state-of-the art of methodological and clinical studies for muscle excitability testing.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Intensive Care Unit-Acquired Weakness and Critical Illness Myopathy: A Narrative Review

Mitochondria are key structures providing most of the energy needed to maintain homeostasis. They are the main source of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), participate in glucose, lipid and amino acid metabolism, store calcium and are integral components in various intracellular signaling cascades. However, due to their crucial role in cellular integrity, mitochondrial damage and dysregulation in the context of critical illness can severely impair organ function, leading to energetic crisis and organ failure. Skeletal muscle tissue is rich in mitochondria and, therefore, particularly vulnerable to mitochondrial dysfunction. Intensive care unit-acquired weakness (ICUAW) and critical illness myopathy (CIM) are phenomena of generalized weakness and atrophying skeletal muscle wasting, including preferential myosin breakdown in critical illness, which has also been linked to mitochondrial failure. Hence, imbalanced mitochondrial dynamics, dysregulation of the respiratory chain complexes, alterations in gene expression, disturbed signal transduction as well as impaired nutrient utilization have been proposed as underlying mechanisms. This narrative review aims to highlight the current known molecular mechanisms immanent in mitochondrial dysfunction of patients suffering from ICUAW and CIM, as well as to discuss possible implications for muscle phenotype, function and therapeutic approaches.

A prospective clinical study on the mechanisms underlying critical illness myopathy-A time-course approach

BACKGROUND

Critical illness myopathy (CIM) is a consequence of modern critical care resulting in general muscle wasting and paralyses of all limb and trunk muscles, resulting in prolonged weaning from the ventilator, intensive care unit (ICU) treatment and rehabilitation. CIM is associated with severe morbidity/mortality and significant negative socioeconomic consequences, which has become increasingly evident during the current COVID-19 pandemic, but underlying mechanisms remain elusive.

METHODS

Ten neuro-ICU patients exposed to long-term controlled mechanical ventilation were followed with repeated muscle biopsies, electrophysiology and plasma collection three times per week for up to 12 days. Single muscle fibre contractile recordings were conducted on the first and final biopsy, and a multiomics approach was taken to analyse gene and protein expression in muscle and plasma at all collection time points.

RESULTS

(i) A progressive preferential myosin loss, the hallmark of CIM, was observed in all neuro-ICU patients during the observation period (myosin:actin ratio decreased from 2.0 in the first to 0.9 in the final biopsy, P < 0.001). The myosin loss was coupled to a general transcriptional downregulation of myofibrillar proteins (P < 0.05; absolute fold change >2) and activation of protein degradation pathways (false discovery rate [FDR] <0.1), resulting in significant muscle fibre atrophy and loss in force generation capacity, which declined >65% during the 12 day observation period (muscle fibre cross-sectional area [CSA] and maximum single muscle fibre force normalized to CSA [specific force] declined 30% [P < 0.007] and 50% [P < 0.0001], respectively). (ii) Membrane excitability was not affected as indicated by the maintained compound muscle action potential amplitude upon supramaximal stimulation of upper and lower extremity motor nerves. (iii) Analyses of plasma revealed early activation of inflammatory and proinflammatory pathways (FDR < 0.1), as well as a redistribution of zinc ions from plasma.

CONCLUSIONS

The mechanical ventilation-induced lung injury with release of cytokines/chemokines and the complete mechanical silencing uniquely observed in immobilized ICU patients affecting skeletal muscle gene/protein expression are forwarded as the dominant factors triggering CIM.

Excitability properties of mouse and human skeletal muscle fibres compared by muscle velocity recovery cycles

Mouse models of skeletal muscle channelopathies are not phenocopies of human disease. In some cases (e.g. Myotonia Congenita) the phenotype is much more severe, whilst in others (e.g. Hypokalaemic periodic paralysis) rodent physiology is protective. This suggests a species' difference in muscle excitability properties. In humans these can be measured indirectly by the post-impulse changes in conduction velocity, using Muscle Velocity Recovery Cycles (MVRCs). We performed MVRCs in mice and compared their muscle excitability properties with humans. Mouse Tibialis Anterior MVRCs (n = 70) have only one phase of supernormality (increased conduction velocity), which is smaller in magnitude (p = 9 × 10-21), and shorter in duration (p = 3 × 10-24) than human (n = 26). This abbreviated supernormality is followed by a period of late subnormality (reduced velocity) in mice, which overlaps in time with the late supernormality seen in human MVRCs. The period of late subnormality suggests increased t-tubule Na+/K+-pump activity. The subnormal phase in mice was converted to supernormality by blocking ClC-1 chloride channels, suggesting relatively higher chloride conductance in skeletal muscle. Our findings help explain discrepancies in phenotype between mice and humans with skeletal muscle channelopathies and potentially other neuromuscular disorders. MVRCs are a valuable new tool to compare in vivo muscle membrane properties between species and will allow further dissection of the molecular mechanisms regulating muscle excitability.

Critical Illness Myopathy: Diagnostic Approach and Resulting Therapeutic Implications

Purpose of review

Critical illness myopathy (CIM) is a common neuro-muscular complication of intensive care treatment associated with increased morbidity and mortality. The current guidelines for diagnosis include clinical and electrophysiological criteria as well as a muscle biopsy, and allow diagnosis only at an advanced stage of the disease. To date, there is no treatment for CIM available, apart from symptomatic and rehabilitative interventions. In this review, we discuss different diagnostic approaches and describe new treatment possibilities for CIM.

Recent findings

Of the diagnostic approaches evaluated, a new electrophysiological technique for measuring muscle excitability has the greatest potential to allow earlier diagnosis of CIM than the current guidelines do and thereby may facilitate the conduction of future pathophysiological and therapeutic studies. Although clinical trials are still lacking, in animal models, BGP-15, vamorolone, and ruxolitinib have been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects, to reduce muscle wasting and to improve muscle function and survival.

Summary

In recent years, promising methods for early and confirmatory diagnosis of CIM have been developed, but still need validation. Experimental studies on novel pharmacological interventions show promising results in terms of preventive CIM treatments, but future clinical studies will be needed to study the effectiveness and safety of these drugs.

Relationship between intensive care unit-acquired weakness, fatigability and fatigue: What role for the central nervous system?

PURPOSE

To provide a comprehensive review of studies that have investigated fatigue in intensive care unit (ICU) survivors and questions the potential link between intensive care unit-acquired weakness (ICUAW), fatigability and fatigue. We also question whether the central nervous system (CNS) may be the link between these entities.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A narrative review of the literature that investigated fatigue in ICU survivors and review of clinical trials enabling understanding of CNS alterations in response to ICU stays.

RESULTS

Fatigue is a pervasive and debilitating symptom in ICU survivors that can interfere with rehabilitation. Due to the complex pathophysiology of fatigue, more work is required to understand the roles of ICUAW and/or fatigability in fatigue to provide a more holistic understanding of this symptom. While muscle alterations have been well documented in ICU survivors, we believe that CNS alterations developing early during the ICU stay may play a role in fatigue.

CONCLUSIONS

Fatigue should be considered and treated in ICU survivors. The causes of fatigue are likely to be specific to the individual. Understanding the role that ICUAW and fatigability may have in fatigue would allow to tailor individual treatment to prevent this persistent symptom and improve quality of life.

Intensive Care Unit-Acquired Weakness: Not just Another Muscle Atrophying Condition

Intensive care unit-acquired weakness (ICUAW) occurs in critically ill patients stemming from the critical illness itself, and results in sustained disability long after the ICU stay. Weakness can be attributed to muscle wasting, impaired contractility, neuropathy, and major pathways associated with muscle protein degradation such as the ubiquitin proteasome system and dysregulated autophagy. Furthermore, it is characterized by the preferential loss of myosin, a distinct feature of the condition. While many risk factors for ICUAW have been identified, effective interventions to offset these changes remain elusive. In addition, our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the long-term, sustained weakness observed in a subset of patients after discharge is minimal. Herein, we discuss the various proposed pathways involved in the pathophysiology of ICUAW, with a focus on the mechanisms underpinning skeletal muscle wasting and impaired contractility, and the animal models used to study them. Furthermore, we will explore the contributions of inflammation, steroid use, and paralysis to the development of ICUAW and how it pertains to those with the corona virus disease of 2019 (COVID-19). We then elaborate on interventions tested as a means to offset these decrements in muscle function that occur as a result of critical illness, and we propose new strategies to explore the molecular mechanisms of ICUAW, including serum-related biomarkers and 3D human skeletal muscle culture models.

Critical Illness Myopathy

Critical illness myopathy (CIM) is a primary myopathy associated with increased mortality and morbidity, which frequently develops in severely ill patients. Several risk factors have been suggested for the development of critical illness myopathy. However, neither the exact etiology nor the underlying mechanisms are known in detail. Although for definite diagnosis muscle biopsy is needed, electrophysiological tests are crucial for the diagnosis of probable critical illness myopathy and differential diagnosis. In this review, conventional electrophysiological tests such as nerve conduction studies, needle electromyography, direct muscle stimulation, and repetitive stimulation for diagnosis of critical illness myopathy are summarized. Moreover, studies using the novel method of recording muscle velocity recovery cycles are addressed.

Muscle membrane properties in A pig sepsis model: Effect of norepinephrine

INTRODUCTION

Sepsis-induced myopathy and critical illness myopathy are common causes of muscle weakness in intensive care patients. This study investigated the effect of different mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) levels on muscle membrane properties following experimental sepsis.

METHODS

Sepsis was induced with fecal peritonitis in 12 of 18 anesthetized and mechanically ventilated pigs. Seven were treated with a high (75-85 mmHg) and 5 were treated with a low (≥60 mmHg) MAP target for resuscitation. In septic animals, resuscitation was started 12 h after peritonitis induction, and muscle velocity recovery cycles were recorded 30 h later.

RESULTS

Muscles in the sepsis/high MAP group showed an increased relative refractory period and reduced early supernormality compared with the remaining septic animals and the control group, indicating membrane depolarization and/or sodium channel inactivation. The membrane abnormalities correlated positively with norepinephrine dose.

DISCUSSION

Norepinephrine may contribute to sepsis-induced abnormalities in muscle by impairing microcirculation. Muscle Nerve 57: 808-813, 2018.

Septic porcine blood does not further activate coagulation during in vitro membrane oxygenation

Objectives

For patients with a severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) represents a life-saving measure. Frequently, patients with severe ARDS also show signs of severe sepsis. As blood contact with the membrane oxygenator surface leads to adverse effects due to insufficient biocompatibility partly caused by activation of platelets, coagulation factors and leucocytes, we hypothesized that these adverse effects would be amplified if septic blood in a preactivated state came into contact with the membrane oxygenator.

Methods

In a previously established in vitro 12-h ECMO test system (mock loop), we used septic or healthy domestic pig blood to analyse coagulation and inflammatory parameters. Sepsis was induced by a caecal ligation and puncture model in pigs.

Results

At the beginning of the mock loop experiments, the septic blood showed significantly increased thrombin-antithrombin complexes (76.9 vs 27.7 µg/l), D-dimers (1.2 vs 0.3 mg/l) and fibrinogen concentration (1.8 vs 1.5 g/l), as well as elevated extrinsic coagulation activity (shorter EXTEM-CT: 44.2 vs 57 s) and higher lactate (3.4 vs 1.5 mmol/l) and cytokine levels (interleukin-6: 827 vs 31 pg/ml) when compared with the blood from healthy animals. Despite the preactivated status of the septic blood, no further increase of coagulation activity, inflammatory response or increased oxygenator resistance was observed in comparison to the control experiments.

Conclusion

Septic porcine blood was not further activated due to the contact with an oxygenator, and no increased clot formation or biocompatibility problems were observed.

Intensive care unit-acquired weakness

When critically ill, a severe weakness of the limbs and respiratory muscles often develops with a prolonged stay in the intensive care unit (ICU), a condition vaguely termed intensive care unit-acquired weakness (ICUAW). Many of these patients have serious nerve and muscle injury. This syndrome is most often seen in surviving critically ill patients with sepsis or extensive inflammatory response which results in increased duration of mechanical ventilation and hospital length of stay. Patients with ICUAW often do not fully recover and the disability will seriously impact on their quality of life. In this chapter we discuss the current knowledge on the pathophysiology and risk factors of ICUAW. Tools to diagnose ICUAW, how to separate ICUAW from other disorders, and which possible treatment strategies can be employed are also described. ICUAW is finally receiving the attention it deserves and the expectation is that it can be better understood and prevented.

Critical illness polyneuropathy in ICU patients is related to reduced motor nerve excitability caused by reduced sodium permeability

Background

Reduced motor and sensory nerve amplitudes in critical illness polyneuropathy (CIP) are characteristic features described in electrophysiological studies and due to dysfunction of voltage-gated sodium channels. Yet, faulty membrane depolarization as reported in various tissues of critically ill patients may cause reduced membrane excitability as well. The aim of this study was to compare the pathophysiological differences in motor nerve membrane polarization and voltage-gated sodium channel function between CIP patients and critically ill patients not developing CIP during their ICU stay (ICU controls).

Methods

ICU patients underwent electrophysiological nerve conduction studies and were categorized as either ICU controls or CIP patients. Subsequently, excitability parameters were recorded as current-threshold relationship, stimulus-response behavior, threshold electrotonus, and recovery of excitability from the abductor pollicis brevis following median nerve stimulation.

Results

Twenty-six critically ill patients were enrolled and categorized as 12 ICU controls and 14 CIP patients. When compared to 31 healthy subjects, the ICU controls exhibited signs of membrane depolarization as shown by reduced superexcitability (p = 0.003), depolarized threshold electrotonus (p = 0.007), increased current-threshold relationship (p = 0.03), and slightly prolonged strength-duration time constant. In contrast, the CIP patients displayed a significantly reduced strength-duration time constant (p < 0.0001), which indicates an increased inactivation of voltage-gated sodium channels.

Conclusions

Abnormal motor nerve membrane depolarization is a general finding in critically ill patients whereas voltage-gated sodium channel dysfunction is a characteristic of CIP patients.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40635-016-0083-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Clinical review: intensive care unit acquired weakness

A substantial number of patients admitted to the ICU because of an acute illness, complicated surgery, severe trauma, or burn injury will develop a de novo form of muscle weakness during the ICU stay that is referred to as “intensive care unit acquired weakness” (ICUAW). This ICUAW evoked by critical illness can be due to axonal neuropathy, primary myopathy, or both. Underlying pathophysiological mechanisms comprise microvascular, electrical, metabolic, and bioenergetic alterations, interacting in a complex way and culminating in loss of muscle strength and/or muscle atrophy. ICUAW is typically symmetrical and affects predominantly proximal limb muscles and respiratory muscles, whereas facial and ocular muscles are often spared. The main risk factors for ICUAW include high severity of illness upon admission, sepsis, multiple organ failure, prolonged immobilization, and hyperglycemia, and also older patients have a higher risk. The role of corticosteroids and neuromuscular blocking agents remains unclear. ICUAW is diagnosed in awake and cooperative patients by bedside manual testing of muscle strength and the severity is scored by the Medical Research Council sum score. In cases of atypical clinical presentation or evolution, additional electrophysiological testing may be required for differential diagnosis. The cornerstones of prevention are aggressive treatment of sepsis, early mobilization, preventing hyperglycemia with insulin, and avoiding the use parenteral nutrition during the first week of critical illness. Weak patients clearly have worse acute outcomes and consume more healthcare resources. Recovery usually occurs within weeks or months, although it may be incomplete with weakness persisting up to 2 years after ICU discharge. Prognosis appears compromised when the cause of ICUAW involves critical illness polyneuropathy, whereas isolated critical illness myopathy may have a better prognosis. In addition, ICUAW has shown to contribute to the risk of 1-year mortality. Future research should focus on new preventive and/or therapeutic strategies for this detrimental complication of critical illness and on clarifying how ICUAW contributes to poor longer-term prognosis.