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Gasan TA, Kuipers ME, Roberts GH, Padalino G, Forde-Thomas JE, Wilson S, Wawrzyniak J, Tukahebwa EM, Hoffmann KF, Chalmers IW. Schistosoma mansoni Larval Extracellular Vesicle protein 1 (SmLEV1) is an immunogenic antigen found in EVs released from pre-acetabular glands of invading cercariae. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009981. [PMID: 34793443 PMCID: PMC8639091 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) are an integral component of cellular/organismal communication and have been found in the excreted/secreted (ES) products of both protozoan and metazoan parasites. Within the blood fluke schistosomes, EVs have been isolated from egg, schistosomula, and adult lifecycle stages. However, the role(s) that EVs have in shaping aspects of parasite biology and/or manipulating host interactions is poorly defined. Herein, we characterise the most abundant EV-enriched protein in Schistosoma mansoni tissue-migrating schistosomula (Schistosoma mansoni Larval Extracellular Vesicle protein 1 (SmLEV1)). Comparative sequence analysis demonstrates that lev1 orthologs are found in all published Schistosoma genomes, yet homologs are not found outside of the Schistosomatidae. Lifecycle expression analyses collectively reveal that smlev1 transcription peaks in cercariae, is male biased in adults, and is processed by alternative splicing in intra-mammalian lifecycle stages. Immunohistochemistry of cercariae using a polyclonal anti-recombinant SmLEV1 antiserum localises this protein to the pre-acetabular gland, with some disperse localisation to the surface of the parasite. S. mansoni-infected Ugandan fishermen exhibit a strong IgG1 response against SmLEV1 (dropping significantly after praziquantel treatment), with 11% of the cohort exhibiting an IgE response and minimal levels of detectable antigen-specific IgG4. Furthermore, mice vaccinated with rSmLEV1 show a slightly reduced parasite burden upon challenge infection and significantly reduced granuloma volumes, compared with control animals. Collectively, these results describe SmLEV1 as a Schistosomatidae-specific, EV-enriched immunogen. Further investigations are now necessary to uncover the full extent of SmLEV1's role in shaping schistosome EV function and definitive host relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A. Gasan
- Institute of Biological, Environmental & Rural Sciences (IBERS), Aberystwyth University, Edward Llwyd Building, Aberystwyth, United Kingdom
| | - Marije E. Kuipers
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Grisial H. Roberts
- Institute of Biological, Environmental & Rural Sciences (IBERS), Aberystwyth University, Edward Llwyd Building, Aberystwyth, United Kingdom
| | - Gilda Padalino
- Institute of Biological, Environmental & Rural Sciences (IBERS), Aberystwyth University, Edward Llwyd Building, Aberystwyth, United Kingdom
| | - Josephine E. Forde-Thomas
- Institute of Biological, Environmental & Rural Sciences (IBERS), Aberystwyth University, Edward Llwyd Building, Aberystwyth, United Kingdom
| | - Shona Wilson
- University of Cambridge, Department of Pathology, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Jakub Wawrzyniak
- University of Cambridge, Department of Pathology, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Karl F. Hoffmann
- Institute of Biological, Environmental & Rural Sciences (IBERS), Aberystwyth University, Edward Llwyd Building, Aberystwyth, United Kingdom
| | - Iain W. Chalmers
- Institute of Biological, Environmental & Rural Sciences (IBERS), Aberystwyth University, Edward Llwyd Building, Aberystwyth, United Kingdom
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Hambrook JR, Hanington PC. Immune Evasion Strategies of Schistosomes. Front Immunol 2021; 11:624178. [PMID: 33613562 PMCID: PMC7889519 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.624178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Human schistosomes combat the unique immune systems of two vastly different hosts during their indirect life cycles. In gastropod molluscs, they face a potent innate immune response composed of variable immune recognition molecules and highly phagocytic hemocytes. In humans, a wide variety of innate and adaptive immune processes exist in proximity to these parasites throughout their lifespan. To survive and thrive as the second most common parasitic disease in humans, schistosomes have evolved many techniques to avoid and combat these targeted host responses. Among these techniques are molecular mimicry of host antigens, the utilization of an immune resistant outer tegument, the secretion of several potent proteases, and targeted release of specific immunomodulatory factors affecting immune cell functions. This review seeks to describe these key immune evasion mechanisms, among others, which schistosomes use to survive in both of their hosts. After diving into foundational observational studies of the processes mediating the establishment of schistosome infections, more recent transcriptomic and proteomic studies revealing crucial components of the host/parasite molecular interface are discussed. In order to combat this debilitating and lethal disease, a comprehensive understanding of schistosome immune evasion strategies is necessary for the development of novel therapeutics and treatment plans, necessitating the discussion of the numerous ways in which these parasitic flatworms overcome the immune responses of both hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob R Hambrook
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
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Schistosoma mansoni venom allergen-like protein 6 (SmVAL6) maintains tegumental barrier function. Int J Parasitol 2020; 51:251-261. [PMID: 33253697 PMCID: PMC7957364 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2020.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Smval6 is expressed in oral/ventral suckers, oesophageal gland and mesenchymal cells of Schistosoma mansoni. Smval6 knockdown increases surface membrane permeability. SmVAL6 interacts with Sm14 and DLC proteins.
The Schistosoma mansoni venom allergen-like protein (SmVAL) superfamily is a collection of at least 29 molecules that have been classified into two distinctive groups (Group 1 and Group 2 SmVALs). The fundamental basis for SmVAL segregation relates to signal peptide and conserved cysteine retention (present in all Group 1 SmVALs, but absent in all Group 2 SmVALs). These structural differences have led to the hypothesis that most Group 1 SmVALs, found as components of schistosome excretory/secretory (E/S) products, predominantly interact with their environment (intermediate or definitive hosts) whereas the Group 2 SmVALs are retained within the schistosome to fulfil parasite-related functions. While experimental evidence to support Group 1 SmVAL/host interactions is growing, similar support for identification of parasite-related Group 2 SmVAL functions is currently lacking. By applying a combination of approaches to the study of SmVAL6, we provide the first known evidence for an essential function of a Group 2 SmVAL in schistosome biology. After whole mount in situ hybridisation (WISH) localised Smval6 to the anterior region of the oesophageal gland (AOG) and cells scattered through the mesenchyme in adult schistosomes, short interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated silencing of Smval6 was employed to assess loss of function phenotypes. Here, siSmval6-mediated knockdown of transcript and protein levels led to an increase in tegumental permeability as assessed by the quantification of TAMRA-labelled dextran throughout sub-tegumental cells/tissues. Yeast two hybrid screening using SmVAL6 as a bait revealed Sm14 (a fatty acid binding protein) and a dynein light chain (DLC) as directly interacting partners. Interrogation of single-cell RNA-seq (scRNA-seq) data supported these protein interactions by demonstrating the spatial co-expression of Smval6/dlc/Sm14 in a small proportion of adult cell types (e.g. neurons, tegumental cells and neoblasts). In silico modelling of SmVAL6 with Sm14 and DLC provided evidence that opposing faces of SmVAL6 were likely responsible for these protein/protein interactions. Our results suggest that SmVAL6 participates in oesophageal biology, formation of higher order protein complexes and maintenance of tegumental barrier function. Further studies of other Group 2 SmVALs may reveal additional functions of this enigmatic superfamily.
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Montoya-Alonso JA, Morchón R, Matos JI, Falcón-Cordón Y, Costa-Rodriguez N, Carretón E. Dirofilaria immitis Could Be a Risk Factor for the Development of Allergic Diseases in Humans. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10101847. [PMID: 33050570 PMCID: PMC7601753 DOI: 10.3390/ani10101847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Heartworm is a parasitic infection transmitted by mosquitoes to animals and humans. The risk of human infections is high in those areas with high canine prevalence, such as the Canary Islands. In these islands, there is also a high number of allergic inhabitants. Since some studies have shown a relationship between parasite infections and development of allergies, the aim of this study was to evaluate whether exposure to heartworm may contribute to the development of allergies. A survey carried out on dog owners in the Canary Islands showed that 51.3% of allergic owners had a heartworm-positive dog, and significant differences were found between allergic or not-allergic owners, according to whether the dog was negative or positive to heartworm. Furthermore, 66 serum samples from inhabitants of the Canary Islands were analyzed for the presence of unspecific allergy markers (Immunoglobulin E or IgE) and specific for heartworm (IgE against Dirofilaria immitis and Wolbachia) and the results show that people who were in contact with heartworm showed total IgE and specific IgE against heartworm more frequently. Contact with heartworm may be a risk factor for the development of allergic diseases, although further studies to elucidate the relationship between heartworm and allergies should be carried out. Abstract The Canary Islands are hyperendemic for canine heartworm and the risk of zoonotic infection is high. Additionally, there is evidence of development of allergies due to nematode infections in animals and humans. Since the population of the Canary Islands presents high prevalence of allergic comorbidities, and previous studies have shown a possible relationship between allergies and seropositivity to heartworm, the aim was to evaluate whether exposure to heartworm may contribute to the development of allergies in the human population. First, an epidemiological study was conducted on 248 owners of dogs with/without heartworm infection in the Canary Islands. Secondly, a serological analysis of the presence of total IgE and specific IgE against heartworm was conducted in 66 samples of inhabitants of the Canary Islands. The survey showed that allergic owners had heartworm-positive dogs more frequently (p < 0.01). Of the analyzed human samples, 43.9% were seropositive to heartworm and Wolbachia. Total IgE concentrations were increased in 34.5% seropositive samples and 8.1% seronegative samples. Specific IgE against heartworm was only found in human seropositive samples (17.2%). Contact with heartworm may be a risk factor for the development of allergic diseases, although further studies to elucidate the relationship between heartworm and allergies should be carried out.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Alberto Montoya-Alonso
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35016 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain; (J.A.M.-A.); (J.I.M.); (Y.F.-C.); (N.C.-R.)
| | - Rodrigo Morchón
- Animal and Human Dirofilariosis Group, Laboratory of Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain;
| | - Jorge Isidoro Matos
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35016 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain; (J.A.M.-A.); (J.I.M.); (Y.F.-C.); (N.C.-R.)
| | - Yaiza Falcón-Cordón
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35016 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain; (J.A.M.-A.); (J.I.M.); (Y.F.-C.); (N.C.-R.)
| | - Noelia Costa-Rodriguez
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35016 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain; (J.A.M.-A.); (J.I.M.); (Y.F.-C.); (N.C.-R.)
| | - Elena Carretón
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35016 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain; (J.A.M.-A.); (J.I.M.); (Y.F.-C.); (N.C.-R.)
- Correspondence:
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Buddenborg SK, Kamel B, Hanelt B, Bu L, Zhang SM, Mkoji GM, Loker ES. The in vivo transcriptome of Schistosoma mansoni in the prominent vector species Biomphalaria pfeifferi with supporting observations from Biomphalaria glabrata. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007013. [PMID: 31568484 PMCID: PMC6797213 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2018] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The full scope of the genes expressed by schistosomes during intramolluscan development has yet to be characterized. Understanding the gene products deployed by larval schistosomes in their snail hosts will provide insights into their establishment, maintenance, asexual reproduction, ability to castrate their hosts, and their prolific production of human-infective cercariae. Using the Illumina platform, the intramolluscan transcriptome of Schistosoma mansoni was investigated in field-derived specimens of the prominent vector species Biomphalaria pfeifferi at 1 and 3 days post infection (d) and from snails shedding cercariae. These S. mansoni samples were derived from the same snails used in our complementary B. pfeifferi transcriptomic study. We supplemented this view with microarray analyses of S. mansoni from B. glabrata at 2d, 4d, 8d, 16d, and 32d to highlight robust features of S. mansoni transcription, even when a different technique and vector species was used. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Transcripts representing at least 7,740 (66%) of known S. mansoni genes were expressed during intramolluscan development, with the greatest number expressed in snails shedding cercariae. Many transcripts were constitutively expressed throughout development featuring membrane transporters, and metabolic enzymes involved in protein and nucleic acid synthesis and cell division. Several proteases and protease inhibitors were expressed at all stages, including some proteases usually associated with cercariae. Transcripts associated with G-protein coupled receptors, germ cell perpetuation, and stress responses and defense were well represented. We noted transcripts homologous to planarian anti-bacterial factors, several neural development or neuropeptide transcripts including neuropeptide Y, and receptors that may be associated with schistosome germinal cell maintenance that could also impact host reproduction. In at least one snail the presence of larvae of another digenean species (an amphistome) was associated with repressed S. mansoni transcriptional activity. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE This in vivo study, emphasizing field-derived snails and schistosomes, but supplemented with observations from a lab model, provides a distinct view from previous studies of development of cultured intramolluscan stages from lab-maintained organisms. We found many highly represented transcripts with suspected or unknown functions, with connection to intramolluscan development yet to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah K. Buddenborg
- Department of Biology, Center for Evolutionary and Theoretical Immunology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States of America
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Bishoy Kamel
- Department of Biology, Center for Evolutionary and Theoretical Immunology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States of America
| | - Ben Hanelt
- Department of Biology, Center for Evolutionary and Theoretical Immunology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States of America
| | - Lijing Bu
- Department of Biology, Center for Evolutionary and Theoretical Immunology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States of America
| | - Si-Ming Zhang
- Department of Biology, Center for Evolutionary and Theoretical Immunology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States of America
| | - Gerald M. Mkoji
- Center for Biotechnology Research and Development, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairob,i Kenya
| | - Eric S. Loker
- Department of Biology, Center for Evolutionary and Theoretical Immunology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States of America
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Farias LP, Chalmers IW, Perally S, Rofatto HK, Jackson CJ, Brown M, Khouri MI, Barbosa MMF, Hensbergen PJ, Hokke CH, Leite LCC, Hoffmann KF. Schistosoma mansoni venom allergen-like proteins: phylogenetic relationships, stage-specific transcription and tissue localization as predictors of immunological cross-reactivity. Int J Parasitol 2019; 49:593-599. [PMID: 31136745 PMCID: PMC6598858 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2019.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The Schistosoma mansoni venom allergen-like (SmVAL) family relationships were investigated. Transcription patterns of SmVALs associate with phylogenetic relationships. There was clear antibody cross-reactivity between related native SmVAL proteins. SmVAL4, 10, 18 and 19 all localized via WISH to pre-acetabular glands of cercariae.
Schistosoma mansoni venom allergen-like proteins (SmVALs) are part of a diverse protein superfamily partitioned into two groups (group 1 and group 2). Phylogenetic analyses of group 1 SmVALs revealed that members could be segregated into subclades (A–D); these subclades share similar gene expression patterns across the parasite lifecycle and immunological cross-reactivity. Furthermore, whole-mount in situ hybridization demonstrated that the phylogenetically, transcriptionally and immunologically-related SmVAL4, 10, 18 and 19 (subclade C) were all localized to the pre-acetabular glands of immature cercariae. Our results suggest that SmVAL group 1 phylogenetic relationships, stage-specific transcriptional profiles and tissue localization are predictive of immunological cross-reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo P Farias
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brasil, 1500, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Instituto Gonçalo Moniz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), Rua Waldemar Falcão, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Iain W Chalmers
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, SY23 3FG Aberystwyth, UK
| | - Samirah Perally
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, SY23 3FG Aberystwyth, UK
| | - Henrique K Rofatto
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brasil, 1500, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Colin J Jackson
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, SY23 3FG Aberystwyth, UK
| | - Martha Brown
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, SY23 3FG Aberystwyth, UK
| | - Mariana I Khouri
- Instituto Gonçalo Moniz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), Rua Waldemar Falcão, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Mayra M F Barbosa
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brasil, 1500, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação Interunidades em Biotecnologia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Paul J Hensbergen
- Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Centre, P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Cornelis H Hokke
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Centre, P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Luciana C C Leite
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brasil, 1500, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Karl F Hoffmann
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, SY23 3FG Aberystwyth, UK.
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Fernandes RS, Fernandes LGV, de Godoy AS, Miyasato PA, Nakano E, Farias LP, Nascimento ALTO, Leite LCC. Schistosoma mansoni venom allergen-like protein 18 (SmVAL18) is a plasminogen-binding protein secreted during the early stages of mammalian-host infection. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2018; 221:23-31. [PMID: 29477861 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2018.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by trematodes of the genus Schistosoma which have a complex life cycle characterized by an asexual multiplication phase in the snail intermediate host and a sexual reproduction phase in the mammalian definitive host. The initial steps of the human host infection involve the secretion of proteins contained in the acetabular glands of cercariae that promote parasite adhesion and proteolysis of the skin layers. Herein, we performed a functional analysis of SmVAL18, identified as one of the three SCP/TAPS proteins constituent of cercarial secretions. We evaluated the SmVAL18 binding to immobilized macromolecules of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and to plasma components. Recombinant protein, expressed in E. coli, was found to maintain an ordered secondary structure typical of the SCP/TAPS domain after purification. Expression of native SmVAL18 protein was verified to be restricted to cercariae and 3-h schistosomula stages; furthermore, the protein was observed in the corresponding secretions, confirming that SmVAL18 is secreted during the first 3 h of in vitro culture. rSmVAL18 was able to interact specifically with plasminogen (PLG) and enhance its conversion into plasmin in the presence of the urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA). Protein homology modelling suggested that the PLG-rSmVAL18 interaction was mediated by lysine residues of the protein. This was supported by in vitro data using the lysine analogue, 6-aminocaproic acid (ACA), which abolished the interaction. Finally, our results showed that both cercariae and 3-h schistosomula, as well as their corresponding secretions, exhibited the capacity to bind PLG and enhance its conversion into plasmin in vitro in the same way as observed for the recombinant protein. In conclusion, our findings show that SmVAL18 is a novel PLG-binding protein secreted during the early stages of the mammalian-host infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafaela S Fernandes
- Laboratorio de Desenvolvimento de Vacinas, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brasil, 1500, São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação Interunidades em Biotecnologia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Luis G V Fernandes
- Laboratorio de Desenvolvimento de Vacinas, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brasil, 1500, São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação Interunidades em Biotecnologia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Andre S de Godoy
- Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Patrícia A Miyasato
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brasil, 1500, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Eliana Nakano
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brasil, 1500, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Leonardo P Farias
- IGM - Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-FIOCRUZ, Rua Waldemar Falcão, 121, 40296-710 Salvador, BA, Brazil.
| | - Ana L T O Nascimento
- Laboratorio de Desenvolvimento de Vacinas, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brasil, 1500, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Luciana C C Leite
- Laboratorio de Desenvolvimento de Vacinas, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brasil, 1500, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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