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Musigk N, Suwalski P, Golpour A, Fairweather D, Klingel K, Martin P, Frustaci A, Cooper LT, Lüscher TF, Landmesser U, Heidecker B. The inflammatory spectrum of cardiomyopathies. Front Cardiovasc Med 2024; 11:1251780. [PMID: 38464847 PMCID: PMC10921946 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2024.1251780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Infiltration of the myocardium with various cell types, cytokines and chemokines plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of cardiomyopathies including inflammatory cardiomyopathies and myocarditis. A more comprehensive understanding of the precise immune mechanisms involved in acute and chronic myocarditis is essential to develop novel therapeutic approaches. This review offers a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge of the immune landscape in cardiomyopathies based on etiology. It identifies gaps in our knowledge about cardiac inflammation and emphasizes the need for new translational approaches to improve our understanding thus enabling development of novel early detection methods and more effective treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Musigk
- Deutsches Herzzentrum der Charité, Department of Cardiology, Angiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Phillip Suwalski
- Deutsches Herzzentrum der Charité, Department of Cardiology, Angiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ainoosh Golpour
- Deutsches Herzzentrum der Charité, Department of Cardiology, Angiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - DeLisa Fairweather
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences and Engineering, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Center for Clinical and Translational Science, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Karin Klingel
- Cardiopathology Institute for Pathology, Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Pilar Martin
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Cardiovascular (CIBER-CV, ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Leslie T. Cooper
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
| | - Thomas F. Lüscher
- GZO-Zurich Regional Health Centre, Wetzikon & Cardioimmunology, Centre for Molecular Cardiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Royal Brompton & Harefield Hospitals and National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ulf Landmesser
- Deutsches Herzzentrum der Charité, Department of Cardiology, Angiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bettina Heidecker
- Deutsches Herzzentrum der Charité, Department of Cardiology, Angiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Berlin, Germany
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2
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Rego N, Libisch MG, Rovira C, Tosar JP, Robello C. Comparative microRNA profiling of Trypanosoma cruzi infected human cells. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1187375. [PMID: 37424776 PMCID: PMC10322668 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1187375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, can infect almost any nucleated cell in the mammalian host. Although previous studies have described the transcriptomic changes that occur in host cells during parasite infection, the understanding of the role of post-transcriptional regulation in this process is limited. MicroRNAs, a class of short non-coding RNAs, are key players in regulating gene expression at the post-transcriptional level, and their involvement in the host-T. cruzi interplay is a growing area of research. However, to our knowledge, there are no comparative studies on the microRNA changes that occur in different cell types in response to T. cruzi infection. Methods and results Here we investigated microRNA changes in epithelial cells, cardiomyocytes and macrophages infected with T. cruzi for 24 hours, using small RNA sequencing followed by careful bioinformatics analysis. We show that, although microRNAs are highly cell type-specific, a signature of three microRNAs -miR-146a, miR-708 and miR-1246, emerges as consistently responsive to T. cruzi infection across representative human cell types. T. cruzi lacks canonical microRNA-induced silencing mechanisms and we confirm that it does not produce any small RNA that mimics known host microRNAs. We found that macrophages show a broad response to parasite infection, while microRNA changes in epithelial and cardiomyocytes are modest. Complementary data indicated that cardiomyocyte response may be greater at early time points of infection. Conclusions Our findings emphasize the significance of considering microRNA changes at the cellular level and complement previous studies conducted at higher organizational levels, such as heart samples. While miR-146a has been previously implicated in T. cruzi infection, similarly to its involvement in many other immunological responses, miR-1246 and miR-708 are demonstrated here for the first time. Given their expression in multiple cell types, we anticipate our work as a starting point for future investigations into their role in the post-transcriptional regulation of T. cruzi infected cells and their potential as biomarkers for Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Rego
- Unidad de Bioinformática, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay
- Laboratorio de Genómica Evolutiva, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - María Gabriela Libisch
- Laboratorio de Interacciones Hospedero Patógeno/UBM, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Carlos Rovira
- Department of Clinical Sciences Lund, Division of Oncology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Juan Pablo Tosar
- Laboratorio de Genómica Funcional, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay
- Unidad de Bioquímica Analítica, Centro de Investigaciones Nucleares, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Carlos Robello
- Laboratorio de Interacciones Hospedero Patógeno/UBM, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
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3
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Cevey ÁC, Pieralisi AV, Donato M, Rada J, Gelpi RJ, Mirkin GA, Goren NB, Penas FN. Macrophages Mediate Healing Properties of Fenofibrate in Experimental Chagasic Cardiomyopathy. ACS Infect Dis 2023; 9:213-220. [PMID: 36661566 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.2c00535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Chronic cardiomyopathy is one of the most relevant outcomes of Chagas disease associated with parasite persistence and exacerbated inflammatory response. Fenofibrate, a third generation fibric acid derivative and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α ligand, is involved in the regulation of inflammatory response. However, the participation of macrophages in this scenario has not been elucidated. Here we show, for the first time, that macrophages play a fundamental role in the fenofibrate-mediated modulation of heart pro-inflammatory response and fibrosis caused by the infection with Trypanosoma cruzi. Furthermore, macrophages are required for fenofibrate to improve the loss of ventricular function and this restoration correlates with an anti-inflammatory microenvironment. Understanding the contributions of macrophages to the healing properties of fenofibrate reinforces its potential use as a therapeutic drug, with the aim of helping to solve a public health problem, such as chronic Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ágata Carolina Cevey
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y SIDA (INBIRS). Facultad de Medicina, CONICET - Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1121ABG, Argentina
| | - Azul Victoria Pieralisi
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y SIDA (INBIRS). Facultad de Medicina, CONICET - Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1121ABG, Argentina
| | - Martín Donato
- Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Fisiopatología Cardiovascular (INFICA), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1121ABG, Argentina
| | - Jimena Rada
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y SIDA (INBIRS). Facultad de Medicina, CONICET - Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1121ABG, Argentina
| | - Ricardo Jorge Gelpi
- Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Fisiopatología Cardiovascular (INFICA), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1121ABG, Argentina
| | - Gerardo Ariel Mirkin
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Médica (IMPaM). Facultad de Medicina, CONICET - Universidad de Buenos Aires. Buenos Aires C1121ABG, Argentina
| | - Nora Beatriz Goren
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y SIDA (INBIRS). Facultad de Medicina, CONICET - Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1121ABG, Argentina
| | - Federico Nicolás Penas
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y SIDA (INBIRS). Facultad de Medicina, CONICET - Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1121ABG, Argentina
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4
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Sun C, Tian X, Jia Y, Yang M, Li Y, Fernig DG. Functions of exogenous FGF signals in regulation of fibroblast to myofibroblast differentiation and extracellular matrix protein expression. Open Biol 2022; 12:210356. [PMID: 36102060 PMCID: PMC9471990 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.210356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibroblasts are widely distributed cells found in most tissues and upon tissue injury, they are able to differentiate into myofibroblasts, which express abundant extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. Overexpression and unordered organization of ECM proteins cause tissue fibrosis in damaged tissue. Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family proteins are well known to promote angiogenesis and tissue repair, but their activities in fibroblast differentiation and fibrosis have not been systematically reviewed. Here we summarize the effects of FGFs in fibroblast to myofibroblast differentiation and ECM protein expression and discuss the underlying potential regulatory mechanisms, to provide a basis for the clinical application of recombinant FGF protein drugs in treatment of tissue damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changye Sun
- Henan Key Laboratory of Medical Tissue Regeneration, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, Henan 453003, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiangqin Tian
- Henan Key Laboratory of Medical Tissue Regeneration, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, Henan 453003, People's Republic of China
| | - Yangyang Jia
- Henan Key Laboratory of Medical Tissue Regeneration, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, Henan 453003, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingming Yang
- Department of Cardiology, Affiliated Zhongda Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210009, People's Republic of China
| | - Yong Li
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
| | - David G Fernig
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
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5
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Jones KM, Poveda C, Versteeg L, Bottazzi ME, Hotez PJ. Preclinical advances and the immunophysiology of a new therapeutic chagas disease vaccine. Expert Rev Vaccines 2022; 21:1185-1203. [PMID: 35735065 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2022.2093721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Chronic infection with the protozoal parasite Trypanosoma cruzi leads to a progressive cardiac disease, known as chronic Chagasic cardiomyopathy (CCC). A new therapeutic Chagas disease vaccine is in development to augment existing antiparasitic chemotherapy drugs. AREAS COVERED We report on our current understanding of the underlying immunologic and physiologic mechanisms that lead to CCC, including parasite immune escape mechanisms that allow persistence and the subsequent inflammatory and fibrotic processes that lead to clinical disease. We report on vaccine design and the observed immunotherapeutic effects including induction of a balanced TH1/TH2/TH17 immune response that leads to reduced parasite burdens and tissue pathology. Further, we report vaccine-linked chemotherapy, a dose sparing strategy to further reduce parasite burdens and tissue pathology. EXPERT OPINION Our vaccine-linked chemotherapeutic approach is a multimodal treatment strategy, addressing both the parasite persistence and the underlying deleterious host inflammatory and fibrotic responses that lead to cardiac dysfunction. In targeting treatment towards patients with chronic indeterminate or early determinate Chagas disease, this vaccine-linked chemotherapeutic approach will be highly economical and will reduce the global disease burden and deaths due to CCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn M Jones
- Texas Children's Hospital Center for Vaccine Development, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America.,Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Cristina Poveda
- Texas Children's Hospital Center for Vaccine Development, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America.,Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Leroy Versteeg
- Texas Children's Hospital Center for Vaccine Development, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America.,Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America.,Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Wageningen University & Research, De Elst 1, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Maria Elena Bottazzi
- Texas Children's Hospital Center for Vaccine Development, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America.,Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America.,Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States of America
| | - Peter J Hotez
- Texas Children's Hospital Center for Vaccine Development, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America.,Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America.,Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States of America.,James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy, Rice University, Houston, Texas, United States of America.,Hagler Institute for Advanced Study at Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
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Wang H, Wu T, Hua F, Sun J, Bai Y, Wang W, Liu J, Zhang M. IL-33 Promotes ST2-Dependent Fibroblast Maturation via P38 and TGF-β in a Mouse Model of Epidural Fibrosis. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2022; 19:577-588. [PMID: 35195855 PMCID: PMC9130447 DOI: 10.1007/s13770-021-00425-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 12/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent evidence suggests that IL-33, a novel member of the IL-1β family, is involved in organ fibrosis. However, the roles of IL-33 and its receptor ST2 in epidural fibrosis post spine operation remain elusive. METHODS A mouse model of epidural fibrosis was established after laminectomy. IL-33 in the wound tissues post laminectomy was measured with Western blotting, ELISA and immunoflurosence imaging. The fibroblast cell line NIH-3T3 and primary fibroblasts were treated with IL-33 and the mechanisms of maturation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts were analyzed. To explore roles of IL-33 and its receptor ST2 in vivo, IL-33 knockout (KO) and ST2 KO mice were employed to construct the model of laminectomy. The epidural fibrosis was evaluated using H&E and Masson staining, western-blotting, ELISA and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS As demonstrated in western blotting and ELISA, IL-33 was increased in epidural wound tissues post laminectomy. The immunoflurosence imaging revealed that endothelial cells (CD31+) and fibroblasts (α-SAM+) were major producers of IL-33 in the epidural wound tissues. In vitro, IL-33 promoted fibroblast maturation, which was blocked by ST2 neutralization antibody, suggesting that IL-33-promoted-fibroblasts maturation was ST2 dependent. Further, IL-33/ST2 activated MAPK p38 and TGF-β pathways. Either p38 inhibitor or TGF-β inhibitor decreased fibronectin and α-SAM production from IL-33-treated fibroblasts, suggesting that p38 and TGF-β were involved with IL-33/ST2 signal pathways in the fibroblasts maturation. In vivo, IL-33 KO or ST2 KO decreased fibronectin, α-SMA and collagen deposition in the wound tissues of mice that underwent spine surgery. In addition, TGF-β1 was decreased in IL-33 KO or ST2 KO epidural wound tissues. CONCLUSION In summary, IL-33/ST2 promoted fibroblast differentiation into myofibroblasts via MAPK p38 and TGF-β in a mouse model of epidural fibrosis after laminectomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoran Wang
- grid.452511.6Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Tao Wu
- grid.452511.6Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Feng Hua
- grid.452511.6Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jinpeng Sun
- grid.452511.6Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yunfeng Bai
- grid.452511.6Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Weishun Wang
- grid.89957.3a0000 0000 9255 8984Department of Orthopedics, Sir Run Run Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jun Liu
- grid.452511.6Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Mingshun Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Antibody Technique, Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center of Antibody Drug, Department of Immunology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.
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Berbert LR, González FB, Villar SR, Vigliano C, Lioi S, Beloscar J, Bottasso OA, Silva-Barbosa SD, Savino W, Pérez AR. Enhanced Migratory Capacity of T Lymphocytes in Severe Chagasic Patients Is Correlated With VLA-4 and TNF-α Expression. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:713150. [PMID: 34796122 PMCID: PMC8593233 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.713150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi infection in humans leads to progression to chronic chagasic myocarditis (CCM) in 30% of infected individuals, paralleling T cell inflammatory infiltrates in the heart tissue. T-cell trafficking into the hearts of CCM patients may be modulated by in situ expression of chemotactic or haptotactic molecules, as the chemokine CXCL12, the cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and extracellular matrix proteins (ECM), such as fibronectin. Herein we evaluated the expression of fibronectin, CXCL12, and TNF-α in the myocardial tissue of T. cruzi seropositive (asymptomatic or with CCM), as well as seronegative individuals as healthy controls. Hearts from CCM patients exhibited enhanced expression of these three molecules. CXCL12 and TNF-α serum levels were also increased in CCM individuals. We then evaluated T lymphocytes from chronic chagasic patients by cytofluorometry, in terms of membrane expression levels of molecules involved in cell activation and cell migration, respectively, HLA-DR and the VLA-4 (very late antigen-4, being one integrin-type fibronectin receptor). Indeed, the expression of HLA-DR and VLA-4 was enhanced on T lymphocytes from chagasic patients, especially in the CCM group. To further approach the dynamics of T cell migratory events, we performed fibronectin-, TNF-α-, and CXCL12-driven migration. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and T cells from CCM patients presented an ex vivo enhanced migratory capacity driven by fibronectin alone when this ECM protein was placed in the membrane of transwell migration chambers. When TNF-α was previously placed upon fibronectin, we observed a further and significant increase in the migratory response of both PBMCs and T lymphocytes. Overall, these data suggest the existence in patients with chronic Chagas disease of a cardiac inflammatory infiltrate vector that promotes the recruitment and accumulation of activated T cells, driven in part by enhanced tissue expression of fibronectin and TNF-α, as well as the respective corresponding VLA-4 and TNF receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiz Ricardo Berbert
- Laboratory on Thymus Research, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Florencia Belén González
- Institute of Clinical and Experimental Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Rosario and CONICET, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Silvina Raquel Villar
- Institute of Clinical and Experimental Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Rosario and CONICET, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Carlos Vigliano
- Department of Pathology, Favaloro Foundation, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Susana Lioi
- Cardiology Unit, Centenary Hospital and National University of Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Juan Beloscar
- Cardiology Unit, Centenary Hospital and National University of Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Oscar Adelmo Bottasso
- Institute of Clinical and Experimental Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Rosario and CONICET, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Suse Dayse Silva-Barbosa
- Laboratory on Thymus Research, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Wilson Savino
- Laboratory on Thymus Research, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Brazilian National Institute of Science and Technology on Neuroimmunomodulation, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Rio de Janeiro Research Network on Neuroinflammation, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Ana Rosa Pérez
- Institute of Clinical and Experimental Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Rosario and CONICET, Rosario, Argentina
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Carrillo I, Rabelo RAN, Barbosa C, Rates M, Fuentes-Retamal S, González-Herrera F, Guzmán-Rivera D, Quintero H, Kemmerling U, Castillo C, Machado FS, Díaz-Araya G, Maya JD. Aspirin-triggered resolvin D1 reduces parasitic cardiac load by decreasing inflammation in a murine model of early chronic Chagas disease. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009978. [PMID: 34784372 PMCID: PMC8631674 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is endemic in Latin America and is widely distributed worldwide because of migration. In 30% of cases, after years of infection and in the absence of treatment, the disease progresses from an acute asymptomatic phase to a chronic inflammatory cardiomyopathy, leading to heart failure and death. An inadequate balance in the inflammatory response is involved in the progression of chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy. Current therapeutic strategies cannot prevent or reverse the heart damage caused by the parasite. Aspirin-triggered resolvin D1 (AT-RvD1) is a pro-resolving mediator of inflammation that acts through N-formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2). AT-RvD1 participates in the modification of cytokine production, inhibition of leukocyte recruitment and efferocytosis, macrophage switching to a nonphlogistic phenotype, and the promotion of healing, thus restoring organ function. In the present study, AT-RvD1 is proposed as a potential therapeutic agent to regulate the pro-inflammatory state during the early chronic phase of Chagas disease. Methodology/Principal findings C57BL/6 wild-type and FPR2 knock-out mice chronically infected with T. cruzi were treated for 20 days with 5 μg/kg/day AT-RvD1, 30 mg/kg/day benznidazole, or the combination of 5 μg/kg/day AT-RvD1 and 5 mg/kg/day benznidazole. At the end of treatment, changes in immune response, cardiac tissue damage, and parasite load were evaluated. The administration of AT-RvD1 in the early chronic phase of T. cruzi infection regulated the inflammatory response both at the systemic level and in the cardiac tissue, and it reduced cellular infiltrates, cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, fibrosis, and the parasite load in the heart tissue. Conclusions/Significance AT-RvD1 was shown to be an attractive therapeutic due to its regulatory effect on the inflammatory response at the cardiac level and its ability to reduce the parasite load during early chronic T. cruzi infection, thereby preventing the chronic cardiac damage induced by the parasite. Chagas disease is prevalent in Latin America and is widely distributed worldwide due to migration. In 30% of patients, if the parasite is left untreated, the disease may progress from an acute symptomless phase to chronic myocardial inflammation, which can cause heart failure and death, years after the infection. Imbalances in the inflammatory response are related to this progression. Current treatments cannot prevent or reverse the cardiac damage inflicted by the parasite. Aspirin-triggered resolvin D1, also named AT-RvD1, can modify cellular and humoral inflammatory responses leading to the resolution of inflammation, thus promoting healing and restoring organ function. In this study, AT-RvD1, in an N-formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2)-dependent manner, was shown to regulate local and systemic inflammation and decrease cellular infiltration in the heart tissue of mice chronically infected with the parasite and reduce cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis in the early stages of the chronic phase of the disease. Importantly, AT-RvD1 was able to decrease parasite load in the infected hearts. Thus, this research indicates that At-RvD1 treatment is a potential therapeutic strategy that offers an improvement on current drug therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ileana Carrillo
- Programa de Farmacología Molecular y Clínica, ICBM, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Rayane Aparecida Nonato Rabelo
- Programa em Ciências da Saúde, Doenças Infecciosas e Medicina Tropical/ Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Investigação Médica, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - César Barbosa
- Laboratório de Imunorregulação de Doenças Infecciosas, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Mariana Rates
- Laboratório de Imunorregulação de Doenças Infecciosas, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Sebastián Fuentes-Retamal
- Programa de Farmacología Molecular y Clínica, ICBM, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Fabiola González-Herrera
- Programa de Farmacología Molecular y Clínica, ICBM, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Daniela Guzmán-Rivera
- Programa de Farmacología Molecular y Clínica, ICBM, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Escuela de Farmacia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Helena Quintero
- Programa de Farmacología Molecular y Clínica, ICBM, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Ulrike Kemmerling
- Programa de Anatomía y Biología del Desarrollo, ICBM, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Christian Castillo
- Núcleo de Investigación Aplicada en Ciencias Veterinarias y Agronómicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Agronomía, Universidad de Las Américas, Santiago, Chile
| | - Fabiana S. Machado
- Programa em Ciências da Saúde, Doenças Infecciosas e Medicina Tropical/ Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Investigação Médica, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Laboratório de Imunorregulação de Doenças Infecciosas, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Guillermo Díaz-Araya
- Departamento de Farmacología Química y Toxicología, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- * E-mail: (GD-A); (JDM)
| | - Juan D. Maya
- Programa de Farmacología Molecular y Clínica, ICBM, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- * E-mail: (GD-A); (JDM)
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Manchola Varón NC, Dos Santos GRRM, Colli W, Alves MJM. Interaction With the Extracellular Matrix Triggers Calcium Signaling in Trypanosoma cruzi Prior to Cell Invasion. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:731372. [PMID: 34671568 PMCID: PMC8521164 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.731372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease in humans, infects a wide variety of vertebrates. Trypomastigotes, the parasite infective forms, invade mammalian cells by a still poorly understood mechanism. Adhesion of tissue culture- derived trypomastigotes to the extracellular matrix (ECM) prior to cell invasion has been shown to be a relevant part of the process. Changes in phosphorylation, S-nitrosylation, and nitration levels of proteins, in the late phase of the interaction (2 h), leading to the reprogramming of both trypomastigotes metabolism and the DNA binding profile of modified histones, were described by our group. Here, the involvement of calcium signaling at a very early phase of parasite interaction with ECM is described. Increments in the intracellular calcium concentrations during trypomastigotes-ECM interaction depends on the Ca2+ uptake from the extracellular medium, since it is inhibited by EGTA or Nifedipine, an inhibitor of the L-type voltage gated Ca2+ channels and sphingosine-dependent plasma membrane Ca2+ channel, but not by Vanadate, an inhibitor of the plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase. Furthermore, Nifedipine inhibits the invasion of host cells by tissue culture- derived trypomastigotes in a dose-dependent manner, reaching 95% inhibition at 100 µM Nifedipine. These data indicate the importance of both Ca2+ uptake from the medium and parasite-ECM interaction for host-cell invasion. Previous treatment of ECM with protease abolishes the Ca2+ uptake, further reinforcing the possibility that these events may be connected. The mitochondrion plays a relevant role in Ca2+ homeostasis in trypomastigotes during their interaction with ECM, as shown by the increment of the intracellular Ca2+ concentration in the presence of Antimycin A, in contrast to other calcium homeostasis disruptors, such as Cyclopiazonic acid for endoplasmic reticulum and Bafilomycin A for acidocalcisome. Total phosphatase activity in the parasite decreases in the presence of Nifedipine, EGTA, and Okadaic acid, implying a role of calcium in the phosphorylation level of proteins that are interacting with the ECM in tissue culture- derived trypomastigotes. In summary, we describe here the increment of Ca2+ at an early phase of the trypomastigotes interaction with ECM, implicating both nifedipine-sensitive Ca2+ channels in the influx of Ca2+ and the mitochondrion as the relevant organelle in Ca2+ homeostasis. The data unravel a complex sequence of events prior to host cell invasion itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nubia Carolina Manchola Varón
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Parasites, Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Walter Colli
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Parasites, Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Julia M Alves
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Parasites, Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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10
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Nonaka CKV, Sampaio GL, de Aragão França L, Cavalcante BR, Silva KN, Khouri R, Torres FG, Meira CS, de Souza Santos E, Macedo CT, Paredes BD, Rocha VPC, Rogatto SR, Ribeiro dos Santos R, Souza BSDF, Soares MBP. Therapeutic miR-21 Silencing Reduces Cardiac Fibrosis and Modulates Inflammatory Response in Chronic Chagas Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:3307. [PMID: 33804922 PMCID: PMC8036348 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease, caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), remains a serious public health problem for which there is no effective treatment in the chronic stage. Intense cardiac fibrosis and inflammation are hallmarks of chronic Chagas disease cardiomyopathy (CCC). Previously, we identified upregulation of circulating and cardiac miR-21, a pro-fibrotic microRNA (miRNA), in subjects with CCC. Here, we explored the potential role of miR-21 as a therapeutic target in a model of chronic Chagas disease. PCR array-based 88 microRNA screening was performed in heart samples obtained from C57Bl/6 mice chronically infected with T. cruzi and serum samples collected from CCC patients. MiR-21 was found upregulated in both human and mouse samples, which was corroborated by an in silico analysis of miRNA-mRNA target prediction. In vitro miR-21 functional assays (gain-and loss-of-function) were performed in cardiac fibroblasts, showing upregulation of miR-21 and collagen expression upon transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFβ1) and T. cruzi stimulation, while miR-21 blockage reduced collagen expression. Finally, treatment of T. cruzi-infected mice with locked nucleic acid (LNA)-anti-miR-21 inhibitor promoted a significant reduction in cardiac fibrosis. Our data suggest that miR-21 is a mediator involved in the pathogenesis of cardiac fibrosis and indicates the pharmacological silencing of miR-21 as a potential therapeutic approach for CCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Kymie Vasques Nonaka
- Center for Biotechnology and Cell Therapy, São Rafael Hospital, Salvador 41253-190, Brazil; (C.K.V.N.); (L.d.A.F); (K.N.S.); (B.D.P); (B.S.d.F.S.)
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador 40296-710, Brazil; (G.L.S.); (B.R.C); (R.K.); (F.G.T); (C.S.M); (E.d.S.S); (C.T.M.); (V.P.C.R); (R.R.d.S.)
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro 20000-000, Brazil
| | - Gabriela Louise Sampaio
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador 40296-710, Brazil; (G.L.S.); (B.R.C); (R.K.); (F.G.T); (C.S.M); (E.d.S.S); (C.T.M.); (V.P.C.R); (R.R.d.S.)
- Senai Institute of Innovation in Advanced Health Systems, SENAI CIMATEC, Salvador 41253-190, Brazil
| | - Luciana de Aragão França
- Center for Biotechnology and Cell Therapy, São Rafael Hospital, Salvador 41253-190, Brazil; (C.K.V.N.); (L.d.A.F); (K.N.S.); (B.D.P); (B.S.d.F.S.)
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro 20000-000, Brazil
| | - Bruno Raphael Cavalcante
- Center for Biotechnology and Cell Therapy, São Rafael Hospital, Salvador 41253-190, Brazil; (C.K.V.N.); (L.d.A.F); (K.N.S.); (B.D.P); (B.S.d.F.S.)
| | - Katia Nunes Silva
- Center for Biotechnology and Cell Therapy, São Rafael Hospital, Salvador 41253-190, Brazil; (C.K.V.N.); (L.d.A.F); (K.N.S.); (B.D.P); (B.S.d.F.S.)
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador 40296-710, Brazil; (G.L.S.); (B.R.C); (R.K.); (F.G.T); (C.S.M); (E.d.S.S); (C.T.M.); (V.P.C.R); (R.R.d.S.)
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro 20000-000, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Khouri
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador 40296-710, Brazil; (G.L.S.); (B.R.C); (R.K.); (F.G.T); (C.S.M); (E.d.S.S); (C.T.M.); (V.P.C.R); (R.R.d.S.)
| | - Felipe Guimarães Torres
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador 40296-710, Brazil; (G.L.S.); (B.R.C); (R.K.); (F.G.T); (C.S.M); (E.d.S.S); (C.T.M.); (V.P.C.R); (R.R.d.S.)
| | - Cassio Santana Meira
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador 40296-710, Brazil; (G.L.S.); (B.R.C); (R.K.); (F.G.T); (C.S.M); (E.d.S.S); (C.T.M.); (V.P.C.R); (R.R.d.S.)
- Senai Institute of Innovation in Advanced Health Systems, SENAI CIMATEC, Salvador 41253-190, Brazil
| | - Emanuelle de Souza Santos
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador 40296-710, Brazil; (G.L.S.); (B.R.C); (R.K.); (F.G.T); (C.S.M); (E.d.S.S); (C.T.M.); (V.P.C.R); (R.R.d.S.)
- Senai Institute of Innovation in Advanced Health Systems, SENAI CIMATEC, Salvador 41253-190, Brazil
| | - Carolina Thé Macedo
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador 40296-710, Brazil; (G.L.S.); (B.R.C); (R.K.); (F.G.T); (C.S.M); (E.d.S.S); (C.T.M.); (V.P.C.R); (R.R.d.S.)
- Senai Institute of Innovation in Advanced Health Systems, SENAI CIMATEC, Salvador 41253-190, Brazil
- Department of Cardiology, São Rafael Hospital, Salvador 41253-190, Brazil
| | - Bruno Diaz Paredes
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador 40296-710, Brazil; (G.L.S.); (B.R.C); (R.K.); (F.G.T); (C.S.M); (E.d.S.S); (C.T.M.); (V.P.C.R); (R.R.d.S.)
- Senai Institute of Innovation in Advanced Health Systems, SENAI CIMATEC, Salvador 41253-190, Brazil
| | - Vinicius Pinto Costa Rocha
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador 40296-710, Brazil; (G.L.S.); (B.R.C); (R.K.); (F.G.T); (C.S.M); (E.d.S.S); (C.T.M.); (V.P.C.R); (R.R.d.S.)
- Senai Institute of Innovation in Advanced Health Systems, SENAI CIMATEC, Salvador 41253-190, Brazil
| | - Silvia Regina Rogatto
- Department of Clinical Genetics, University Hospital of Southern Denmark-Vejle, 7100 Vejle, Denmark;
| | - Ricardo Ribeiro dos Santos
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador 40296-710, Brazil; (G.L.S.); (B.R.C); (R.K.); (F.G.T); (C.S.M); (E.d.S.S); (C.T.M.); (V.P.C.R); (R.R.d.S.)
- Senai Institute of Innovation in Advanced Health Systems, SENAI CIMATEC, Salvador 41253-190, Brazil
| | - Bruno Solano de Freitas Souza
- Center for Biotechnology and Cell Therapy, São Rafael Hospital, Salvador 41253-190, Brazil; (C.K.V.N.); (L.d.A.F); (K.N.S.); (B.D.P); (B.S.d.F.S.)
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador 40296-710, Brazil; (G.L.S.); (B.R.C); (R.K.); (F.G.T); (C.S.M); (E.d.S.S); (C.T.M.); (V.P.C.R); (R.R.d.S.)
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro 20000-000, Brazil
| | - Milena Botelho Pereira Soares
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador 40296-710, Brazil; (G.L.S.); (B.R.C); (R.K.); (F.G.T); (C.S.M); (E.d.S.S); (C.T.M.); (V.P.C.R); (R.R.d.S.)
- Senai Institute of Innovation in Advanced Health Systems, SENAI CIMATEC, Salvador 41253-190, Brazil
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11
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Suess PM, Smith SA, Morrissey JH. Platelet polyphosphate induces fibroblast chemotaxis and myofibroblast differentiation. J Thromb Haemost 2020; 18:3043-3052. [PMID: 32808449 PMCID: PMC7719587 DOI: 10.1111/jth.15066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Platelets secrete many pro-wound healing molecules such as growth factors and cytokines. We found that releasates from activated human platelets induced the differentiation of cultured murine and human fibroblasts into a myofibroblast phenotype. Surprisingly, most of this differentiation-inducing activity was heat-stable, suggesting it was not due to the protein component of the releasates. Inorganic polyphosphate is a major constituent of platelet-dense granules and promotes blood coagulation and inflammation. OBJECTIVES We aim to investigate the contribution of polyphosphate on myofibroblast differentiating activity of platelet releasates. METHODS Using NIH-3T3 cells and primary human fibroblasts, we examined the effect of human platelet releasates and chemically synthesized polyphosphate on fibroblast differentiation and migration. RESULTS We found that the myofibroblast-inducing activity of platelet releasates was severely attenuated after incubation with a polyphosphate-degrading enzyme, and that fibroblasts responded to platelet-sized polyphosphate by increased levels of α-smooth muscle actin, stress fibers, and collagen. Furthermore, fibroblasts were chemotactic toward polyphosphate. CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate that platelet-derived polyphosphate acts as a cell signaling molecule by inducing murine and human fibroblasts to differentiate into myofibroblasts, a cell type known to drive both wound healing and fibrosing diseases. Polyphosphate therefore not only promotes early wound responses through enhancing fibrin clot formation, but also may play roles in the later stages of wound healing, and, potentially, progression of fibrotic diseases, by recruiting fibroblasts and inducing their differentiation into myofibroblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick M. Suess
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Stephanie A. Smith
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - James H. Morrissey
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI
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12
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Guimarães-Pinto K, Nascimento DO, Corrêa-Ferreira A, Morrot A, Freire-de-Lima CG, Lopes MF, DosReis GA, Filardy AA. Trypanosoma cruzi Infection Induces Cellular Stress Response and Senescence-Like Phenotype in Murine Fibroblasts. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1569. [PMID: 30038622 PMCID: PMC6047053 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi infects and replicates within a wide variety of immune and non-immune cells. Here, we investigated early cellular responses induced in NIH-3T3 fibroblasts upon infection with trypomastigote forms of T. cruzi. We show that fibroblasts were susceptible to T. cruzi infection and started to release trypomastigotes to the culture medium after 4 days of infection. Also, we found that T. cruzi infection reduced the number of fibroblasts in 3-day cell cultures, by altering fibroblast proliferation. Infected fibroblasts displayed distinctive phenotypic alterations, including enlarged and flattened morphology with a nuclei accumulation of senescence-associated heterochromatin foci. In addition, infection induced an overexpression of the enzyme senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal), an activation marker of the cellular senescence program, as well as the production of cytokines and chemokines involved with the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) such as IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, and MCP-1. Infected fibroblasts released increased amounts of stress-associated factors nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), and the treatment with antioxidants deferoxamine (DFO) and N-acetylcysteine reduced ROS generation, secretion of SASP-related cytokine IL-6, SA-β-gal activity, and parasite load by infected fibroblasts. Taken together, our data suggest that T. cruzi infection triggers a rapid cellular stress response followed by induction of a senescent-like phenotype in NIH-3T3 fibroblasts, enabling them to act as reservoirs of parasites during the early stages of the Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamila Guimarães-Pinto
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Antonia Corrêa-Ferreira
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Morrot
- Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Laboratório de Imunoparasitologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Celio G Freire-de-Lima
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Marcela F Lopes
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - George A DosReis
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Instituto Nacional para Pesquisa Translacional em Saúde e Ambiente na Região Amazônica, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alessandra A Filardy
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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