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Villamizar-Monsalve MA, López-Abán J, Vicente B, Peláez R, Muro A. Current drug strategies for the treatment and control of schistosomiasis. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2024; 25:409-420. [PMID: 38511392 DOI: 10.1080/14656566.2024.2333372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Schistosomiasis, one of the current Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) affects over 230 million people globally, with nearly 700 million at risk in more than 74 countries. Praziquantel (PZQ) has served as the primary treatment for the past four decades; however, its effectiveness is limited as it solely eliminates adult worms. In regions where infections are frequent, PZQ exhibits only temporary efficacy and has restricted potential to disrupt the prolonged transmission of the disease. AREAS COVERED A comprehensive exploration using the PubMed database was conducted to review current pharmacotherapy approaches for schistosomiasis. This review also encompasses recent research findings related to potential novel therapeutics and the repurposing of existing drugs. EXPERT OPINION Current schistosoma treatment strategies, primarily relying on PZQ, face challenges like temporary effectiveness and limited impact on disease transmission. Drug repurposing, due to economic constraints, is decisive for NTDs. Despite PZQ's efficacy, its failure to prevent reinfection highlights the need for complementary strategies, especially in regions with persistent environmental foci. Integrating therapies against diverse schistosome stages boosts efficacy and impedes resistance. Uncovering novel agents is essential to address resistance concerns in tackling this neglected tropical disease. Integrated strategies present a comprehensive approach to navigate the complex challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Alejandra Villamizar-Monsalve
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Group (e-INTRO), Biomedical Research Institute of Salamanca Research Centre for Tropical Diseases at the University of Salamanca (IBSAL-CIETUS), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Julio López-Abán
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Group (e-INTRO), Biomedical Research Institute of Salamanca Research Centre for Tropical Diseases at the University of Salamanca (IBSAL-CIETUS), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Belén Vicente
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Group (e-INTRO), Biomedical Research Institute of Salamanca Research Centre for Tropical Diseases at the University of Salamanca (IBSAL-CIETUS), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Rafael Peláez
- Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, Biomedical Research Institute of Salamanca Research Centre for Tropical Diseases at the University of Salamanca (IBSAL-CIETUS), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Antonio Muro
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Group (e-INTRO), Biomedical Research Institute of Salamanca Research Centre for Tropical Diseases at the University of Salamanca (IBSAL-CIETUS), Salamanca, Spain
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Abdeltawab MS, Abdel-Shafi IR, Aboulhoda BE, Mahfoz AM, Hamed AM. The neuroprotective potential of curcumin on T. Spiralis infected mice. BMC Complement Med Ther 2024; 24:99. [PMID: 38388410 PMCID: PMC10882799 DOI: 10.1186/s12906-024-04399-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trichinella spiralis can affect the brain by inducing inflammatory and vascular changes. Drug management with the antiparasitic drug albendazole can be enhanced by natural compounds such as curcumin. The potential benefit of curcumin as an adjuvant to albendazole in the management of cerebral affection during experimental T. spiralis infection was evaluated. Animals received either curcumin 150 mg/Kg, albendazole 50 mg/Kg or a combination of both drugs. Animal groups receiving treatment were compared with infected and non-infected control groups. Blood levels of reduced glutathione (GSH) and dopamine were measured, and brain tissue expression of cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme (COX-2) and CD34 was assessed by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS T. spiralis infection resulted in a state of oxidative stress, which was improved by albendazole and curcumin. Also, both drugs restored the peripheral dopamine level, which was decreased in infected non-treated mice. Curcumin was also found to be efficient in improving brain pathology and reducing local COX-2 and CD 34 expression. CONCLUSIONS Inflammatory and pathological changes during neurotrichinosis can be improved by the addition of curcumin to conventional anti-parasitic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magda Sa Abdeltawab
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Iman R Abdel-Shafi
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Basma Emad Aboulhoda
- Anatomy and Embryology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Amal M Mahfoz
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Modern University for Technology and Information, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Alshaimaa Mr Hamed
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
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Salama MA, Alabiad MA, Saleh AA. Impact of resveratrol and zinc on biomarkers of oxidative stress induced by Trichinella spiralis infection. J Helminthol 2023; 97:e100. [PMID: 38099459 DOI: 10.1017/s0022149x23000810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
Trichinellosis is a re-emerging worldwide foodborne zoonosis. Oxidative stress is one of the most common detrimental effects caused by trichinellosis. In addition, Trichinella infection poses an infinite and major challenge to the host's immune system. Resistance and side effects limit the efficiency of the existing anti-trichinella medication. Given that concern, this work aimed to investigate the anti-helminthic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of resveratrol and zinc during both phases of Trichinella spiralis infection. Sixty-four Swiss albino mice were divided into four equal groups: non-infected control, infected control, infected and treated with resveratrol, and infected and treated with zinc. Animals were sacrificed on the 7th and 35th days post-infection for intestinal and muscular phase assessments. Drug efficacy was assessed by biochemical, parasitological, histopathological, immunological, and immunohistochemical assays. Resveratrol and zinc can be promising antiparasitic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory agents, as evidenced by the significant decrease in parasite burden, the significant improvement of liver and kidney function parameters, the increase in total antioxidant capacity (TAC), the reduction of malondialdehyde (MDA) level, the increase in nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like-2 factor expression, and the improvement in histopathological findings. Moreover, both drugs enhanced the immune system and restored the disturbed immune balance by increasing the interleukin 12 (IL-12) level. In conclusion, resveratrol and zinc provide protection for the host against oxidative harm and the detrimental effects produced by the host's defense response during Trichinella spiralis infection, making them promising natural alternatives for the treatment of trichinellosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Salama
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt
| | - M A Alabiad
- Pathology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt
| | - A A Saleh
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt
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Loos JA, Franco M, Chop M, Rodriguez Rodrigues C, Cumino AC. Resveratrol against Echinococcus sp.: Discrepancies between In Vitro and In Vivo Responses. Trop Med Infect Dis 2023; 8:460. [PMID: 37888588 PMCID: PMC10610609 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed8100460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In an attempt to find new anti-echinococcal drugs, resveratrol (Rsv) effectiveness against the larval stages of Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis was evaluated. The in vitro effect of Rsv on parasites was assessed via optical and electron microscopy, RT-qPCR and immunohistochemistry. In vivo efficacy was evaluated in murine models of cystic (CE) and alveolar echinococcosis (AE). The impact of infection and drug treatment on the mouse bone marrow hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) population and its differentiation into dendritic cells (BMDCs) was investigated via flow cytometry and RT-qPCR. In vitro treatment with Rsv reduced E. granulosus metacestode and protoscolex viability in a concentration-dependent manner, caused ultrastructural damage, increased autophagy gene transcription, and raised Eg-Atg8 expression while suppressing Eg-TOR. However, the intraperitoneal administration of Rsv was not only ineffective, but also promoted parasite development in mice with CE and AE. In the early infection model of AE treated with Rsv, an expansion of HSCs was observed followed by their differentiation towards BMCDs. The latter showed an anti-inflammatory phenotype and reduced LPS-stimulated activation compared to control BMDCs. We suggest that Rsv ineffectiveness could have been caused by the low intracystic concentration achieved in vivo and the drug's hormetic effect, with opposite anti-parasitic and immunomodulatory responses in different doses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia A. Loos
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Producción, Sanidad y Ambiente (IIPROSAM), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Funes 3350, Nivel Cero, Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina;
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina; (M.C.); (C.R.R.)
| | - Micaela Franco
- Hospital Interzonal General de Agudos “Dr. Oscar E Alende”, Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina;
| | - Maia Chop
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina; (M.C.); (C.R.R.)
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Funes 3350, Nivel 2, Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina
| | - Christian Rodriguez Rodrigues
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina; (M.C.); (C.R.R.)
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Funes 3350, Nivel 2, Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina
| | - Andrea C. Cumino
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Producción, Sanidad y Ambiente (IIPROSAM), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Funes 3350, Nivel Cero, Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina;
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina; (M.C.); (C.R.R.)
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Funes 3350, Nivel 2, Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina
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Ganji A, Jalali-Mashayekhi F, Hajihossein R, Eslamirad Z, Bayat PD, Sakhaie M. Anti-parasitic effects of resveratrol on protoscolices and hydatid cyst layers. Exp Parasitol 2022; 241:108360. [PMID: 35995249 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2022.108360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The main goal of the current study was to evaluate the effectiveness of resveratrol (RESV) on protoscolices and hydatid cysts of Echinococcus granolosus. Echinococcus granolosus protoscolices and hydatid cyst were exposed to RPMI, DMSO, formalin, mebendazole, and different concentrations of RESV in vitro. Then, viability, GGT, and caspase-3 activity of protoscolices were evaluated using light microscopy, colorimetric, and enzymatic assay, respectively. Tissue changes and expression of caspase-3 apoptosis were analyzed on the hydatid cyst wall by histologic and immunohistochemistry methods. The cell toxicity effect of RESV was evaluated on mouse PBMCs by Annexin V-FITC assay. The RESV-treated protoscolices showed loss of viability, increased gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, and caspase-3 activity with significant differences compared to all control groups (P < 0.05). Dose and time dependence of mortality, GGT, and caspase-3 enzymatic activity was confirmed in the protoscolices of Echinococcus granulosus treated by RESV. Also, the tissue changes and apoptosis were prominent in RESV-treated hydatid cyst layers; however, tissue changes were only time-dependent, and RESV concentration had no apparent effect on tissue. In cell toxicity evaluation, RESV is safe without any significant apoptosis induction from 31.5 to 250 μg/ml; however, it was significant at 350 and 500 μg/ml in PBMCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Ganji
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran; Molecular and Medicine Research Center, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran.
| | - Farideh Jalali-Mashayekhi
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, School of Medicine, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran.
| | - Reza Hajihossein
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran.
| | - Zahra Eslamirad
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran.
| | - Parvin-Dokht Bayat
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran.
| | - Mohammadhasan Sakhaie
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran.
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Investigation of the effect of curcumin on oxidative stress, local inflammatory response, COX-2 expression, and microvessel density in Trichinella spiralis induced enteritis, myositis and myocarditis in mice. Helminthologia 2022; 59:18-36. [PMID: 35601760 PMCID: PMC9075878 DOI: 10.2478/helm-2022-0002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Curcumin exerts anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that have proven to be of value in the management of several parasitic infections. Objective Investigation of the value of curcumin in the management of trichinosis either alone or as an adjuvant to albendazole. Methods Animals received either curcumin 150 mg/kg, curcumin 300 mg/kg, albendazole 50 mg/ kg or combined curcumin 150mg/kg and albendazole 50 mg/kg and were compared with control infected and non-infected mice. Estimation of intestinal and muscular parasitic load and blood malondialdehyde level, in addition to the histopathological examination of small intestine, skeletal muscle tissue and heart was performed. Also, assessment of the local expression of cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme (COX-2) and CD34 in these samples was done by immunohistochemistry. Results Curcumin was found efficient in reducing parasitic load. It also lowered serum MDA level, local COX-2 and CD34 expression. An evident anti-inflammatory effect of curcumin was observed in intestinal, skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle histopathological sections. Conclusion The anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and anti-angiogenic effects of curcumin can help to improve trichinellosis-induced pathology. Curcumin can therefore be of value as an adjuvant therapy to conventional antiparasitic agents and can also produce promising results when used alone at higher doses.
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Yang ZY, Liu ZH, Zhang YN, Li C, Liu L, Pu WJ, Xie SQ, Xu J, Xia CM. Synergistic effect of combination chemotherapy with praziquantel and DW-3-15 for Schistosoma japonicum in vitro and in vivo. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:550. [PMID: 34702326 PMCID: PMC8549225 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-05065-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schistosomiasis is a debilitating and neglected tropical disease for which praziquantel (PZQ) remains the first-choice drug for treatment and control of the disease. In our previous studies, we found that the patented compound DW-3-15 (patent no. ZL201110142538.2) displayed significant and stabilized antiparasitic activity through a mechanism that might be distinct from PZQ. Here, we investigated the antischistosomal efficacy of PZQ combined with DW-3-15 against schistosomula and adult worms of Schistosoma japonicum in vitro and in vivo, to verify whether there was a synergistic effect of the two compounds. METHODS The antischistosomal efficacy of PZQ combined with DW-3-15 in comparison with an untreated control and monotherapy group against schistosomula and adult worms was assessed both in vitro and in vivo. Parasitological studies, scanning electron microscopy, combination index, and histopathological analysis were used for the assessment. RESULTS The results showed significantly reduced viability of schistosomes, achieving 100% viability reduction for juveniles and males by combination chemotherapy using PZQ together with DW-3-15 in vitro. The combination index was 0.28, 0.27, and 0.53 at the higher concentration of PZQ combined with DW-3-15 against juveniles, males, and females, respectively, indicating that the two compounds display strong synergism. Scanning electron microscopy observations also demonstrated that the compound combination induced more severe and extensive alterations to the tegument and subtegument of S. japonicum than those with each compound alone. In vivo, compared with the single-compound-treated group, the group treated with the higher-dose combination demonstrated the best schistosomicidal efficacy, with significantly reduced worm burden, egg burden, and granuloma count and area, which was evident against schistosomula and adult worms. CONCLUSIONS Our study provides a potential novel chemotherapy for schistosomiasis caused by S. japonicum. It would improve the antischistosomal effect on schistosomula and adult worms of S. japonicum, and decrease individual dosages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Yin Yang
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Renai Road, Suzhou, 215123 China
| | - Zi-Hao Liu
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Renai Road, Suzhou, 215123 China
| | - Ya-Nan Zhang
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Renai Road, Suzhou, 215123 China
| | - Chen Li
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Renai Road, Suzhou, 215123 China
| | - Lei Liu
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Renai Road, Suzhou, 215123 China
| | - Wen-Jie Pu
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Renai Road, Suzhou, 215123 China
| | - Shi-Qi Xie
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Renai Road, Suzhou, 215123 China
| | - Jing Xu
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Renai Road, Suzhou, 215123 China
| | - Chao-Ming Xia
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Renai Road, Suzhou, 215123 China
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Meng Y, Ma N, Lyu H, Wong YK, Zhang X, Zhu Y, Gao P, Sun P, Song Y, Lin L, Wang J. Recent pharmacological advances in the repurposing of artemisinin drugs. Med Res Rev 2021; 41:3156-3181. [PMID: 34148245 DOI: 10.1002/med.21837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Artemisinins are a family of sesquiterpene lactones originally derived from the sweet wormwood (Artemisia annua). Beyond their well-characterized role as frontline antimalarial drugs, artemisinins have also received increased attention for other potential pharmaceutical effects, which include antiviral, antiparsitic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. With concerted efforts in further preclinical and clinical studies, artemisinin-based drugs have the potential to be viable treatments for a great variety of human diseases. Here, we provide a comprehensive update on recent reports of pharmacological actions and applications of artemisinins outside of their better-known antimalarial role and highlight their potential therapeutic viability for various diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqing Meng
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Nan Ma
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Haining Lyu
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yin Kwan Wong
- Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Xing Zhang
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yongping Zhu
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Gao
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Sun
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yali Song
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, Dongguan Maternal And Child Health Care Hospital, Southern Medical University, Dongguan, China
| | - Lizhu Lin
- Oncology Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jigang Wang
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.,Oncology Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China.,Central People's Hospital of Zhanjiang, Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases, Ministry of Education, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
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da Costa JMC, Gouveia MJ, Rinaldi G, Brindley PJ, Santos J, Santos LL. Control Strategies for Carcinogenic-Associated Helminthiases: An Integrated Overview. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:626672. [PMID: 33842386 PMCID: PMC8025785 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.626672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Helminthiases are extremely prevalent in the developing world. In addition, the chronic infection with some parasitic worms are classified as carcinogenic. Therefore, it is utmost importance to understand the parasite-host interactions, the mechanisms underlay carcinogenesis and how they could be counteracted. This knowledge may ultimately guide novel control strategies that include chemotherapy-based approaches targeting these pathogens and associated pathologies caused by their infections. Little is known on how some helminthiases are associated with cancer; however, it has been hypothesized that chemical carcinogenesis may be involved in the process. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on chemical carcinogenesis associated with helminthiases, along with available therapeutic options and potential therapeutic alternatives including chemotherapy and/or immunotherapy. Ideally, the treatment of the carcinogenic helminthiases should target both the parasite and associated pathologies. The success of any chemotherapeutic regimen often depends on the host immune response during the infection and nutritional status among other factors. The close association between chemotherapy and cell-mediated immunity suggests that a dual therapeutic approach would be advantageous. In addition, there is a pressing need for complementary drugs that antagonize the carcinogenesis process associated with the helminth infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Manuel Correia da Costa
- Centre for the Study in Animal Science (CECA/ICETA), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Centre for Parasite Immunology and Biology, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Health Dr Ricardo Jorge, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria João Gouveia
- Centre for the Study in Animal Science (CECA/ICETA), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Centre for Parasite Immunology and Biology, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Health Dr Ricardo Jorge, Porto, Portugal
- REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Paul J. Brindley
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Tropical Medicine, and Research Centre for Neglected Diseases of Poverty, School of Medicine & Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Júlio Santos
- Deparment of Urology, Clínica da Sagrada Esperança, Luanda, Angola
| | - Lúcio Lara Santos
- Experimental Pathology and Therapeutics Group, Research Center of Instituto Português de Oncologia, Porto, Portugal
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Anthelmintic activity of praziquantel and Spilanthes acmella extract on an intestinal cestode parasite. ACTA PHARMACEUTICA (ZAGREB, CROATIA) 2020; 70:551-560. [PMID: 32412429 DOI: 10.2478/acph-2020-0039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Spilanthes acmella Murr., popularised as toothache plant, is a well-known culinary and medicinal plant for different purposes, but its use as an anthelmintic is apparently exclusive to the Mizo people of India and Myanmar. A chloroform extract of Spilanthes acmella Murr. was analysed in a single quadrupole GC-MS system, from which it was found that the major compound was an alkylamide, N-isobutyl-(2E,4Z,8Z,10E)-dodecatetraenamide. A comparative study was performed on the anthelmintic activity of the plant extract and praziquantel (PZQ) against an intestinal cestode, Raillietina echinobothrida. In terms of efficacy, PZQ was more potent, but the plant extract was also effective at all concentrations tested. PZQ caused severe shrinkage and folds of the tegument, constriction of the suckers, dislocation of spines and erosion of microtriches. The plant extract caused shrinkage and folds on the main body but not on the scolex. Damage on the suckers is more pronounced than in PZQ-treated cestodes. The spines were completely removed. The current findings indicate that S. acmella is a good source of compounds with anthelmintic activity.
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Gouveia MJ, Brindley PJ, Gärtner F, Vale N. Activity of Combinations of Antioxidants and Anthelmintic Drugs against the Adult Stage of Schistosoma mansoni. J Parasitol Res 2020; 2020:8843808. [PMID: 32832132 PMCID: PMC7429017 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8843808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis remains a major neglected tropical disease. The treatment and control of schistosomiasis rely on a single drug, praziquantel (PZQ). Despite its efficacy, treatment with PZQ presents some major drawbacks including an inability of the chemotherapy to reverse disease-induced fibrosis and the prospect of the emergence of drug resistance. Here, we investigated a novel therapeutic approach with antioxidant biomolecules in combination with PZQ against the adult developmental stage of Schistosoma mansoni and oviposition in vitro, given that this therapeutic approach achieved synergistic/additive activity against larval schistosomes. The antioxidants curcumin and oxadiazole per se exhibited antischistosomal activity against adult worms leading to severe morphological alterations and death. Additionally, the antioxidant flavone combined with vandetanib or imatinib improved antischistosomal activity against adult forms. By contrast, however, these antioxidant-anthelmintic combinations were not as effective against adults in comparison to larval schistosomes. Nevertheless, the antioxidants alone or combined with drugs inhibited oviposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria João Gouveia
- Department of Molecular Pathology and Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Center for the Study in Animal Science, University of Porto (CECA/ICETA), Rua de D. Manuel II, Apartado 55142, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal
| | - Paul J. Brindley
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Tropical Medicine, Research Center for Neglected Diseases of Poverty, School of Medicine & Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Fátima Gärtner
- Department of Molecular Pathology and Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), Rua Júlio Amaral de Carvalho 45, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde da Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno Vale
- OncoPharma Research Group, Center for Health Technology and Services Research (CINTESIS), Rua Dr. Plácido da Costa, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Al. Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal
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12
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Lalthanpuii PB, Lalchhandama K. Intestinal cestodes of chicken are effectively killed by quinoline-rich extract of Spilanthes acmella. Vet World 2020; 13:821-826. [PMID: 32546932 PMCID: PMC7245699 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2020.821-826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim Spilanthes acmella is used for the treatment of intestinal helminth infections in Mizo traditional medicine. In spite of a variety of drugs developed for helminthiases, an entirely safe and absolutely effective drug is still lacking, so much so that infections remain a major problem in human and animal welfare. In this study, we attempted to substantiate S. acmella as an anticestodal agent. Materials and Methods The aqueous extract of the aerial parts of S. acmella was prepared and from it a bioactive fraction was obtained using column chromatography. Chemical analyses were done using thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Helminth survival test was performed in vitro on an intestinal cestode, Raillietina tetragona. Structural effects on the cestode were examined under scanning electron microscopy. Results From the bioactive fraction of S. acmella extract, TLC indicated the presence of an aromatic quinone, which was identified using GC-MS as a quinoline derivative (2,2,4-trimethyl-1,2-dihydroquinoline having a retention time of 24.97 min and chemical formula of C12H15N). The quinoline-rich fraction showed concentration-dependent activity against R. tetragona as that of albendazole. Scanning electron microscopy of the treated cestode revealed classic anthelmintic effects such as tegumental shrinkage and damage of surface organs. The scolex was shrunk, suckers were degenerated with disintegrated spines, and rostellum was completely collapsed. There were severe damages on the tegument and formation of pit-like scars on the proglottids. Conclusion The efficacy of S. acmella extract and structural damages it caused on the cestode indicates that it is a potential source of anthelmintic agent and that 2,2,4-trimethyl-1,2-dihydroquinoline contributes to its antiparasitic activity.
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Vale N, Gouveia MJ, Gärtner F. Current and Novel Therapies Against Helminthic Infections: The Potential of Antioxidants Combined with Drugs. Biomolecules 2020; 10:E350. [PMID: 32106428 PMCID: PMC7175190 DOI: 10.3390/biom10030350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2020] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Infections caused by Schistosoma haematobium and Opisthorchisviverrini are classified as Group 1 biological carcinogen and it has been postulated that parasites produce oxysterol and estrogen-like metabolites that might be considered as initiators of infection-associated carcinogenesis. Chemotherapy for these helminthic infections relies on a single drug, praziquantel, (PZQ) that mainly targets the parasite. Additionally, PZQ has some major drawbacks as inefficacy against juvenile form and alone it is not capable to counteract pathologies associated to infections or prevent carcinogenesis. There is an urgent need to develop novel therapeutic approaches that not only target the parasite but also improve the pathologies associated to infection, and ultimately, counteract or/and prevent the carcinogenesis processes. Repurposing the drug in combination of compounds with different modes of action is a promising strategy to find novel therapeutics approaches against these helminthic infections and its pathologies. Here, we emphasized that using antioxidants either alone or combined with anthelmintic drugs could ameliorate tissue damage, infection-associated complications, moreover, could prevent the development of cancer associated to infections. Hence, antioxidants represent a potential adjuvant approach during treatment to reduce morbidity and mortality. Despite the success of some strategies, there is a long way to go to implement novel therapies for schistosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuno Vale
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal;
- Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), Rua Júlio Amaral de Carvalho 45, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Department of Molecular Pathology and Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Maria João Gouveia
- Department of Molecular Pathology and Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal;
- Center for the Study in Animal Science (CECA/ICETA), University of Porto, Rua de D. Manuel II, Apt 55142, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal
| | - Fátima Gärtner
- i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal;
- Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), Rua Júlio Amaral de Carvalho 45, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Department of Molecular Pathology and Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal;
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14
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Santos SS, de Araújo RV, Giarolla J, Seoud OE, Ferreira EI. Searching for drugs for Chagas disease, leishmaniasis and schistosomiasis: a review. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 55:105906. [PMID: 31987883 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Chagas disease, leishmaniasis and schistosomiasis are neglected diseases (NDs) and are a considerable global challenge. Despite the huge number of people infected, NDs do not create interest from pharmaceutical companies because the associated revenue is generally low. Most of the research on these diseases has been conducted in academic institutions. The chemotherapeutic armamentarium for NDs is scarce and inefficient and better drugs are needed. Researchers have found some promising potential drug candidates using medicinal chemistry and computational approaches. Most of these compounds are synthetic but some are from natural sources or are semi-synthetic. Drug repurposing or repositioning has also been greatly stimulated for NDs. This review considers some potential drug candidates and provides details of their design, discovery and activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraya Silva Santos
- Laboratory of Design and Synthesis of Chemotherapeutics Potentially Active in Neglected Diseases (LAPEN), Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo-USP, Avenue Professor Lineu Prestes, 580-Building 13, São Paulo SP, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Renan Vinicius de Araújo
- Laboratory of Design and Synthesis of Chemotherapeutics Potentially Active in Neglected Diseases (LAPEN), Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo-USP, Avenue Professor Lineu Prestes, 580-Building 13, São Paulo SP, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Jeanine Giarolla
- Laboratory of Design and Synthesis of Chemotherapeutics Potentially Active in Neglected Diseases (LAPEN), Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo-USP, Avenue Professor Lineu Prestes, 580-Building 13, São Paulo SP, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Omar El Seoud
- Laboratory of Design and Synthesis of Chemotherapeutics Potentially Active in Neglected Diseases (LAPEN), Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo-USP, Avenue Professor Lineu Prestes, 580-Building 13, São Paulo SP, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Elizabeth Igne Ferreira
- Laboratory of Design and Synthesis of Chemotherapeutics Potentially Active in Neglected Diseases (LAPEN), Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo-USP, Avenue Professor Lineu Prestes, 580-Building 13, São Paulo SP, 05508-900, Brazil.
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15
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Gouveia MJ, Nogueira V, Araújo B, Gärtner F, Vale N. Inhibition of the Formation In Vitro of Putatively Carcinogenic Metabolites Derived from S. haematobium and O. viverrini by Combination of Drugs with Antioxidants. Molecules 2019; 24:E3842. [PMID: 31731402 PMCID: PMC6864706 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24213842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Infections caused by Schistosoma haematobium and Opisthorchis viverrini are classified as carcinogenic. Although carcinogenesis might be a multifactorial process, it has been postulated that these helminth produce/excrete oxysterols and estrogen-like metabolites that might act as initiators of their infection-associated carcinogenesis. Current treatment and control of these infections rely on a single drug, praziquantel, that mainly targets the parasites and not the pathologies related to the infection including cancer. Thus, there is a need to search for novel therapeutic alternatives that might include combinations of drugs and drug repurposing. Based on these concepts, we propose a novel therapeutic strategy that combines drugs with molecule antioxidants. We evaluate the efficacy of a novel therapeutic strategy to prevent the formation of putative carcinogenic metabolites precursors and DNA adducts. Firstly, we used a methodology previously established to synthesize metabolites precursors and DNA adducts in the presence of CYP450. Then, we evaluated the inhibition of their formation induced by drugs and antioxidants alone or in combination. Drugs and resveratrol alone did not show a significant inhibitory effect while N-acetylcysteine inhibited the formation of most metabolite precursors and DNA adducts. Moreover, the combinations of classical drugs with antioxidants were more effective rather than compounds alone. This strategy might be a valuable tool to prevent the initiation of helminth infection-associated carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria João Gouveia
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (M.J.G.); (V.N.); (B.A.)
- Department of Molecular Pathology and Immnunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal;
- Center for the Study of Animal Science, CECA-ICETA, University of Porto, Praça Gomes Teixeira Apartado 55142, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal
| | - Verónica Nogueira
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (M.J.G.); (V.N.); (B.A.)
- Department of Molecular Pathology and Immnunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Bruno Araújo
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (M.J.G.); (V.N.); (B.A.)
- Department of Molecular Pathology and Immnunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Fátima Gärtner
- Department of Molecular Pathology and Immnunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal;
- Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), Rua Júlio Amaral de Carvalho, 45, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, university of Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno Vale
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (M.J.G.); (V.N.); (B.A.)
- Department of Molecular Pathology and Immnunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal;
- Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), Rua Júlio Amaral de Carvalho, 45, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, university of Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
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16
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Gouveia MJ, Brindley PJ, Rinaldi G, Gärtner F, Correia da Costa JM, Vale N. Combination Anthelmintic/Antioxidant Activity Against Schistosoma Mansoni. Biomolecules 2019; 9:E54. [PMID: 30764562 PMCID: PMC6406910 DOI: 10.3390/biom9020054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 01/29/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is a major neglected tropical disease. Treatment for schistosomiasis with praziquantel (PZQ), which is effective against the parasite, by itself is not capable to counteract infection-associated disease lesions including hepatic fibrosis. There is a pressing need for novel therapies. Due to their biological properties, antioxidant biomolecules might be useful in treating and reverting associated pathological sequelae. Here, we investigated a novel therapy approach based on a combination of anthelmintic drugs with antioxidant biomolecules. We used a host-parasite model involving Bioamphalaria glabrata and newly transformed schistosomula (NTS) of Schistosoma mansoni. For in vitro drug screening assays, was selected several antioxidants and evaluated not only antischistosomal activity but also ability to enhance activity of the anthelmintic drugs praziquantel (PZQ) and artesunate (AS). The morphological alterations induced by compounds alone/combined were assessed on daily basis using an inverted and automated microscope to quantify NTS viability by a fluorometric-based method. The findings indicated that not only do some antioxidants improve antischistosomal activity of the two anthelmintics, but they exhibit activity per se, leading to high mortality of NTS post-exposure. The combination index (CI) of PZQ + Mel (CI = 0.80), PZQ + Resv (CI = 0.74), AS + Resv (CI = 0.34), AS + NAC (CI = 0.89), VDT + Flav (CI = 1.03) and VDT + Resv (CI = 1.06) reveal that they display moderate to strong synergism. The combination of compounds with discrete mechanisms of action might provide a valuable adjunct to contribution for treatment of schistosomiasis-associated disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria João Gouveia
- Center for the Study in Animal Science, University of Porto, (CECA/ICETA), Rua de D. Manuel II, Apt 55142, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal.
- Department of Molecular Pathology and Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
- Department of Drug Sciences, Laboratory of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Paul J Brindley
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Tropical Medicine, Research Center for Neglected Diseases of Poverty, School of Medicine & Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA.
| | - Gabriel Rinaldi
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Tropical Medicine, Research Center for Neglected Diseases of Poverty, School of Medicine & Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA.
| | - Fátima Gärtner
- Department of Molecular Pathology and Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
- Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), Rua Júlio Amaral de Carvalho 45, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.
- University of Porto, i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.
| | - José Manuel Correia da Costa
- Center for the Study in Animal Science, University of Porto, (CECA/ICETA), Rua de D. Manuel II, Apt 55142, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal.
- Department of Infectious Diseases, INSA-National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Rua Alexandre Herculano 321, 4000-055 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Nuno Vale
- Department of Molecular Pathology and Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
- Department of Drug Sciences, Laboratory of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
- Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), Rua Júlio Amaral de Carvalho 45, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.
- University of Porto, i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.
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