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Kozelková T, Dyčka F, Lu S, Urbanová V, Frantová H, Sojka D, Šíma R, Horn M, Perner J, Kopáček P. Insight Into the Dynamics of the Ixodes ricinus Nymphal Midgut Proteome. Mol Cell Proteomics 2023; 22:100663. [PMID: 37832788 PMCID: PMC10665701 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcpro.2023.100663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Ticks are ectoparasites that feed on blood and have an impressive ability to consume and process enormous amounts of host blood, allowing extremely long periods of starvation between blood meals. The central role in the parasitic lifestyle of ticks is played by the midgut. This organ efficiently stores and digests ingested blood and serves as the primary interface for the transmission of tick-borne pathogens. In this study, we used a label-free quantitative approach to perform a novel dynamic proteomic analysis of the midgut of Ixodesricinus nymphs, covering their development from unfed to pre-molt stages. We identified 1534 I. ricinus-specific proteins with a relatively low proportion of host proteins. This proteome dataset, which was carefully examined by manual scrutiny, allowed precise annotation of proteins important for blood meal processing and their dynamic changes during nymphal ontogeny. We focused on midgut molecules related to lipid hydrolysis, storage, and transport, opening a yet unexplored avenue for studying lipid metabolism in ticks. Further dynamic profiling of the tick's multi-enzyme digestive network, protease inhibitors, enzymes involved in redox homeostasis and detoxification, antimicrobial peptides, and proteins responsible for midgut colonization by Borrelia spirochetes promises to uncover new targets for targeting tick nymphs, the most critical life stage for transmission the pathogens that cause tick-borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tereza Kozelková
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic; Faculty of Sciences, University of South Bohemia, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Filip Dyčka
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic; Faculty of Sciences, University of South Bohemia, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Stephen Lu
- Vector Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Veronika Urbanová
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Helena Frantová
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Daniel Sojka
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Radek Šíma
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic; Bioptic Laboratory, Ltd, Plzen, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Horn
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Perner
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Kopáček
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic.
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Kim TK, Waldman J, Ibanez-Carrasco F, Tirloni L, Waltero C, Calixo C, Braz GR, Mulenga A, da Silva Vaz Junior I, Logullo C. Stable internal reference genes for quantitative RT-PCR analyses in Rhipicephalus microplus during embryogenesis. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2023; 14:102251. [PMID: 37708803 PMCID: PMC10555470 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2023.102251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Studies on the transcriptional control of gene expression are crucial to understand changes in organism's physiological or cellular conditions. To obtain reliable data on mRNA amounts and the estimation of gene expression levels, it is crucial to normalize the target gene with one or more internal reference gene(s). However, the use of constitutive genes as reference genes is controversial, as their expression patterns are sometimes more complex than previously thought. In various arthropod vectors, including ticks, several constitutive genes have been identified by studying gene expression in different tissues and life stages. The cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus is a major vector for several pathogens and is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions globally. Tick developmental physiology is an essential aspect of research, particularly embryogenesis, where many important developmental events occur, thus the identification of stable reference genes is essential for the interpretation of reliable gene expression data. This study aimed to identify and select R. microplus housekeeping genes and evaluate their stability during embryogenesis. Reference genes used as internal control in molecular assays were selected based on previous studies. These genes were screened by quantitative PCR (qPCR) and tested for gene expression stability during embryogenesis. Results demonstrated that the relative stability of reference genes varied at different time points during the embryogenesis. The GeNorm tool showed that elongation factor 1α (Elf1a) and ribosomal protein L4 (Rpl4) were the most stable genes, while H3 histone family 3A (Hist3A) and ribosomal protein S18 (RpS18) were the least stable. The NormFinder tool showed that Rpl4 was the most stable gene, while the ranking of Elf1a was intermediate in all tested conditions. The BestKeeper tool showed that Rpl4 and cyclophilin A (CycA) were the more and less stable genes, respectively. These data collectively demonstrate that Rpl4, Elf1a, and GAPDH are suitable internal controls for normalizing qPCR during R. microplus embryogenesis. These genes were consistently identified as the most stable in various analysis methods employed in this study. Thus, findings presented in this study offer valuable information for the study of gene expression during embryogenesis in R. microplus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae Kwon Kim
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA; Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; Laboratório de Bioquímica de Artrópodes Hematófagos, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Jéssica Waldman
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Freddy Ibanez-Carrasco
- Department of Entomology, Minnie Bell Heep Center, Texas A&M University, Suite 412, 2475 TAMU, 370 Olsen Blvd, College Station, TX, USA; Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center, 2415 East US Highway 83, Weslaco, TX 78596, USA
| | - Lucas Tirloni
- Tick-Pathogen Transmission Unit, Laboratory of Bacteriology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Camila Waltero
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Artrópodes Hematófagos, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Christiano Calixo
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Artrópodes Hematófagos, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Gloria R Braz
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil; Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia - Entomologia Molecular, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Albert Mulenga
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Itabajara da Silva Vaz Junior
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia - Entomologia Molecular, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil; Faculdade de Veterinária, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| | - Carlos Logullo
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Artrópodes Hematófagos, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil,; Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia - Entomologia Molecular, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Rispe C, Hervet C, de la Cotte N, Daveu R, Labadie K, Noel B, Aury JM, Thany S, Taillebois E, Cartereau A, Le Mauff A, Charvet CL, Auger C, Courtot E, Neveu C, Plantard O. Transcriptome of the synganglion in the tick Ixodes ricinus and evolution of the cys-loop ligand-gated ion channel family in ticks. BMC Genomics 2022; 23:463. [PMID: 35733088 PMCID: PMC9219234 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-022-08669-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ticks represent a major health issue for humans and domesticated animals. Exploring the expression landscape of the tick's central nervous system (CNS), known as the synganglion, would be an important step in understanding tick physiology and in managing tick-borne diseases, but studies on that topic are still relatively scarce. Neuron-specific genes like the cys-loop ligand-gated ion channels (cys-loop LGICs, or cysLGICs) are important pharmacological targets of acaricides. To date their sequence have not been well catalogued for ticks, and their phylogeny has not been fully studied. RESULTS We carried out the sequencing of transcriptomes of the I. ricinus synganglion, for adult ticks in different conditions (unfed males, unfed females, and partially-fed females). The de novo assembly of these transcriptomes allowed us to obtain a large collection of cys-loop LGICs sequences. A reference meta-transcriptome based on synganglion and whole body transcriptomes was then produced, showing high completeness and allowing differential expression analyses between synganglion and whole body. Many of the genes upregulated in the synganglion were associated with neurotransmission and/or localized in neurons or the synaptic membrane. As the first step of a functional study of cysLGICs, we cloned the predicted sequence of the resistance to dieldrin (RDL) subunit homolog, and functionally reconstituted the first GABA-gated receptor of Ixodes ricinus. A phylogenetic study was performed for the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) and other cys-loop LGICs respectively, revealing tick-specific expansions of some types of receptors (especially for Histamine-like subunits and GluCls). CONCLUSIONS We established a large catalogue of genes preferentially expressed in the tick CNS, including the cysLGICs. We discovered tick-specific gene family expansion of some types of cysLGIC receptors, and a case of intragenic duplication, suggesting a complex pattern of gene expression among different copies or different alternative transcripts of tick neuro-receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Romain Daveu
- INRAE, Oniris, BIOEPAR, Nantes, France.,Department of Biology and Biotechnology "L. Spallanzani", University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Karine Labadie
- Génomique Métabolique, Genoscope, Institut de biologie François Jacob, CEA, CNRS, Université d'Evry, Université Paris-Saclay, Evry, France
| | - Benjamin Noel
- Génomique Métabolique, Genoscope, Institut de biologie François Jacob, CEA, CNRS, Université d'Evry, Université Paris-Saclay, Evry, France
| | - Jean-Marc Aury
- Génomique Métabolique, Genoscope, Institut de biologie François Jacob, CEA, CNRS, Université d'Evry, Université Paris-Saclay, Evry, France
| | - Steeve Thany
- Université d'Orléans, LBLGC USC INRAE 1328, 1 rue de Chartres, 45067, Orléans, France
| | - Emiliane Taillebois
- Université d'Orléans, LBLGC USC INRAE 1328, 1 rue de Chartres, 45067, Orléans, France
| | - Alison Cartereau
- Université d'Orléans, LBLGC USC INRAE 1328, 1 rue de Chartres, 45067, Orléans, France
| | - Anaïs Le Mauff
- Université d'Orléans, LBLGC USC INRAE 1328, 1 rue de Chartres, 45067, Orléans, France
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Ruiling Z, Wenjuan L, Kexin Z, Xuejun W, Zhong Z. Developmental transcriptomics throughout the embryonic developmental process of Rhipicephalus turanicus reveals stage-specific gene expression profiles. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:89. [PMID: 35292089 PMCID: PMC8922761 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05214-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Ticks are important vectors and transmit diverse pathogens, including protozoa, viruses, and bacteria. Tick-borne diseases can cause damage to both human health and the livestock industries. The control and prevention of ticks and tick-borne diseases has relied heavily on acaricides. Methods In the present study, using a high-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) technique, we performed a comprehensive time-series transcriptomic analysis throughout the embryogenesis period of Rhipicephalus turanicus. Results Altogether, 127,157 unigenes were assembled and clustered. Gene expression differences among the embryonic stages demonstrated that the most differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were observed in the comparisons of early embryonic stages (RTE5 vs. RTE10, 9726 genes), and there were far fewer DEGs in later stages (RTE25 vs. RTE30, 2751 genes). Furthermore, 16 distinct gene modules were identified according to weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), and genes in different modules displayed stage-specific characteristics. Gene Ontology (GO) annotations and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment suggested that some genes involved in organ and tissue formation were significantly upregulated in the early embryonic developmental stages, whereas metabolism-related pathways were more enriched in the later embryonic developmental stages. Conclusions These transcriptome studies revealed gene expression profiles at different stages of embryonic development, which would be useful for interrupting the embryonic development of ticks and disrupting the transmission of tick-borne diseases. Graphical Abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-022-05214-w.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhang Ruiling
- Collaborative Innovation Center for the Origin and Control of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Shandong First Medical University (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Tai'an, China. .,School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong First Medical University (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Tai'an, China.
| | - Liu Wenjuan
- Collaborative Innovation Center for the Origin and Control of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Shandong First Medical University (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Tai'an, China.,School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong First Medical University (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Tai'an, China
| | - Zhang Kexin
- Collaborative Innovation Center for the Origin and Control of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Shandong First Medical University (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Tai'an, China.,School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong First Medical University (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Tai'an, China
| | - Wang Xuejun
- Collaborative Innovation Center for the Origin and Control of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Shandong First Medical University (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Tai'an, China. .,Shandong Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Jinan, China.
| | - Zhang Zhong
- Collaborative Innovation Center for the Origin and Control of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Shandong First Medical University (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Tai'an, China. .,School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong First Medical University (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Tai'an, China.
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Yu N, Zhang X. A discrete tick population dynamics model with continuous and seasonal birth breeding. INT J BIOMATH 2022. [DOI: 10.1142/s1793524522500346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we formulate a discrete two-stage model with two types of birth mechanisms, continuous and seasonal. We divide tick population into two subgroups, i.e. immature and mature. We also consider diapause as an important adaptive process for ticks in respond to climate change in both stages. We derive a formula for the inherent net reproductive numbers and explore their stability analysis. When breeding is continuous, there exists a unique globally asymptotically stable positive fixed point provided that the inherent net reproductive number is larger than one; the extinction fixed point is globally asymptotically stable if the inherent net reproductive number is less than one. When breeding is seasonal with 2-periodic birth function, there exists a unique globally asymptotically stable periodic solution provided that the inherent net reproductive number is larger than one, while the population goes to extinction if this value is less than one. For the cases with multi-periodic birth function, we use numerical simulation to compare their complex behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Yu
- College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, Liaoning province, 110819, P. R. China
| | - Xue Zhang
- College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, Liaoning province, 110819, P. R. China
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Three-Dimensional Culture of Rhipicephalus ( Boophilus) microplus BmVIII-SCC Cells on Multiple Synthetic Scaffold Systems and in Rotating Bioreactors. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12080747. [PMID: 34442313 PMCID: PMC8396921 DOI: 10.3390/insects12080747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tick cell culture facilitates research on the biology of ticks and their role as vectors of pathogens that affect humans, domestic animals, and wildlife. Because two-dimensional cell culture doesn't promote the development of multicellular tissue-like composites, we hypothesized that culturing tick cells in a three-dimensional (3-D) configuration would form spheroids or tissue-like organoids. In this study, the cell line BmVIII-SCC obtained from the cattle fever tick, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini, 1888), was cultured in different synthetic scaffold systems. Growth of the tick cells on macrogelatinous beads in rotating continuous culture system bioreactors enabled cellular attachment, organization, and development into spheroid-like aggregates, with evidence of tight cellular junctions between adjacent cells and secretion of an extracellular matrix. At least three cell morphologies were identified within the aggregates: fibroblast-like cells, small endothelial-like cells, and larger cells exhibiting multiple cytoplasmic endosomes and granular vesicles. These observations suggest that BmVIII-SCC cells adapted to 3-D culture retain pluripotency. Additional studies involving genomic analyses are needed to determine if BmVIII-SCC cells in 3-D culture mimic tick organs. Applications of 3-D culture to cattle fever tick research are discussed.
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Kotál J, Buša M, Urbanová V, Řezáčová P, Chmelař J, Langhansová H, Sojka D, Mareš M, Kotsyfakis M. Mialostatin, a Novel Midgut Cystatin from Ixodes ricinus Ticks: Crystal Structure and Regulation of Host Blood Digestion. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:5371. [PMID: 34065290 PMCID: PMC8161381 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22105371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2021] [Revised: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The hard tick Ixodes ricinus is a vector of Lyme disease and tick-borne encephalitis. Host blood protein digestion, essential for tick development and reproduction, occurs in tick midgut digestive cells driven by cathepsin proteases. Little is known about the regulation of the digestive proteolytic machinery of I. ricinus. Here we characterize a novel cystatin-type protease inhibitor, mialostatin, from the I. ricinus midgut. Blood feeding rapidly induced mialostatin expression in the gut, which continued after tick detachment. Recombinant mialostatin inhibited a number of I. ricinus digestive cysteine cathepsins, with the greatest potency observed against cathepsin L isoforms, with which it co-localized in midgut digestive cells. The crystal structure of mialostatin was determined at 1.55 Å to explain its unique inhibitory specificity. Finally, mialostatin effectively blocked in vitro proteolysis of blood proteins by midgut cysteine cathepsins. Mialostatin is likely to be involved in the regulation of gut-associated proteolytic pathways, making midgut cystatins promising targets for tick control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Kotál
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 1160/31, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.K.); (V.U.); (D.S.)
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Branišovská 1760c, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.C.); (H.L.)
| | - Michal Buša
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Flemingovo n. 2, 16610 Praha, Czech Republic; (M.B.); (P.Ř.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Hlavova 2030/8, 12800 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Urbanová
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 1160/31, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.K.); (V.U.); (D.S.)
| | - Pavlína Řezáčová
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Flemingovo n. 2, 16610 Praha, Czech Republic; (M.B.); (P.Ř.)
| | - Jindřich Chmelař
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Branišovská 1760c, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.C.); (H.L.)
| | - Helena Langhansová
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Branišovská 1760c, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.C.); (H.L.)
| | - Daniel Sojka
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 1160/31, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.K.); (V.U.); (D.S.)
| | - Michael Mareš
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Flemingovo n. 2, 16610 Praha, Czech Republic; (M.B.); (P.Ř.)
| | - Michail Kotsyfakis
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 1160/31, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.K.); (V.U.); (D.S.)
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Pontremoli C, Forni D, Clerici M, Cagliani R, Sironi M. Alternation between taxonomically divergent hosts is not the major determinant of flavivirus evolution. Virus Evol 2021; 7:veab040. [PMID: 33976907 PMCID: PMC8093920 DOI: 10.1093/ve/veab040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Flaviviruses display diverse epidemiological and ecological features. Tick-borne and mosquito-borne flaviviruses (TBFV and MBFV, respectively) are important human pathogens that alternate replication in invertebrate vectors and vertebrate hosts. The Flavivirus genus also includes insect-specific viruses (ISFVs) and viruses with unknown invertebrate hosts. It is generally accepted that viruses that alternate between taxonomically different hosts evolve slowly and that the evolution of MBFVs and TBFVs is dominated by strong constraints, with limited episodes of positive selection. We exploited the availability of flavivirus genomes to test these hypotheses and to compare their rates and patterns of evolution. We estimated the substitution rates of CFAV and CxFV (two ISFVs) and, by taking into account the time-frame of measurement, compared them with those of other flaviviruses. Results indicated that CFAV and CxFV display relatively different substitution rates. However, these data, together with estimates for single-host members of the Flaviviridae family, indicated that MBFVs do not display relatively slower evolution. Conversely, TBFVs displayed some of lowest substitution rates among flaviviruses. Analysis of selective patterns over longer evolutionary time-frames confirmed that MBFVs evolve under strong purifying selection. Interestingly, TBFVs and ISFVs did not show extremely different levels of constraint, although TBFVs alternate among hosts, whereas ISFVs do not. Additional results showed that episodic positive selection drove the evolution of MBFVs, despite their high constraint. Positive selection was also detected on two branches of the TBFVs phylogeny that define the seabird clade. Thus, positive selection was much more common during the evolution of arthropod-borne flaviviruses than previously thought. Overall, our data indicate that flavivirus evolutionary patterns are complex and most likely determined by multiple factors, not limited to the alternation between taxonomically divergent hosts. The frequency of both positive and purifying selection, especially in MBFVs, suggests that a minority of sites in the viral polyprotein experience weak constraint and can evolve to generate new viral phenotypes and possibly promote adaptation to new hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Diego Forni
- Scientific Institute IRCCS E. MEDEA, Bioinformatics, Bosisio Parini 23842, Italy
| | - Mario Clerici
- Department of Physiopathology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan 20122, Italy,Don C. Gnocchi Foundation ONLUS, IRCCS, Milan 20121, Italy
| | - Rachele Cagliani
- Scientific Institute IRCCS E. MEDEA, Bioinformatics, Bosisio Parini 23842, Italy
| | - Manuela Sironi
- Scientific Institute IRCCS E. MEDEA, Bioinformatics, Bosisio Parini 23842, Italy
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Chlastáková A, Kotál J, Beránková Z, Kaščáková B, Martins LA, Langhansová H, Prudnikova T, Ederová M, Kutá Smatanová I, Kotsyfakis M, Chmelař J. Iripin-3, a New Salivary Protein Isolated From Ixodes ricinus Ticks, Displays Immunomodulatory and Anti-Hemostatic Properties In Vitro. Front Immunol 2021; 12:626200. [PMID: 33732248 PMCID: PMC7957079 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.626200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tick saliva is a rich source of pharmacologically and immunologically active molecules. These salivary components are indispensable for successful blood feeding on vertebrate hosts and are believed to facilitate the transmission of tick-borne pathogens. Here we present the functional and structural characterization of Iripin-3, a protein expressed in the salivary glands of the tick Ixodes ricinus, a European vector of tick-borne encephalitis and Lyme disease. Belonging to the serpin superfamily of protease inhibitors, Iripin-3 strongly inhibited the proteolytic activity of serine proteases kallikrein and matriptase. In an in vitro setup, Iripin-3 was capable of modulating the adaptive immune response as evidenced by reduced survival of mouse splenocytes, impaired proliferation of CD4+ T lymphocytes, suppression of the T helper type 1 immune response, and induction of regulatory T cell differentiation. Apart from altering acquired immunity, Iripin-3 also inhibited the extrinsic blood coagulation pathway and reduced the production of pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated bone marrow-derived macrophages. In addition to its functional characterization, we present the crystal structure of cleaved Iripin-3 at 1.95 Å resolution. Iripin-3 proved to be a pluripotent salivary serpin with immunomodulatory and anti-hemostatic properties that could facilitate tick feeding via the suppression of host anti-tick defenses. Physiological relevance of Iripin-3 activities observed in vitro needs to be supported by appropriate in vivo experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adéla Chlastáková
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Jan Kotál
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czechia
- Laboratory of Genomics and Proteomics of Disease Vectors, Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Zuzana Beránková
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Barbora Kaščáková
- Laboratory of Structural Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Larissa Almeida Martins
- Laboratory of Genomics and Proteomics of Disease Vectors, Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Helena Langhansová
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Tatyana Prudnikova
- Laboratory of Structural Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Monika Ederová
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Ivana Kutá Smatanová
- Laboratory of Structural Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Michail Kotsyfakis
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czechia
- Laboratory of Genomics and Proteomics of Disease Vectors, Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Jindřich Chmelař
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czechia
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Kozelková T, Doležel D, Grunclová L, Kučera M, Perner J, Kopáček P. Functional characterization of the insulin signaling pathway in the hard tick Ixodes ricinus. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2021; 12:101694. [PMID: 33706210 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Ticks are blood-feeding arachnids transmitting a variety of pathogens to humans and animals. A unique trait in tick physiology is their ability to engorge and digest large amounts of host blood, ensuring their high reproductive potential. Activation of the blood digestive machinery in the tick gut, as well as processes controlling maturation of ovaries, are triggered upon blood meal uptake by still largely unknown mechanisms. Sensing of the nutritional status in metazoan organisms is facilitated by the evolutionarily conserved Insulin Signaling Pathway (ISP) and the interlinked Target of Rapamycin (TOR) pathway. Recently, we have identified three components of these pathways in the hard tick Ixodes ricinus midgut transcriptome, namely a putative insulin receptor (InR), and the downstream intracellular serine/threonine kinases AKT and TOR. In this study, we primarily focus on the molecular and functional characterization of the I. ricinus insulin receptor (IrInR), the first InR characterized in Chelicerates. A phylogenetic analysis across the major Arthropod lineages demonstrated that ticks possess only one gene encoding an InR-related molecule. Tissue expression profiling by quantitative PCR in semi-engorged I. ricinus females revealed that the IrInR, as well as AKT (IrAKT) and TOR (IrTOR) are expressed in various organs, with the highest expression being detected in ovaries. We have further evaluated the impact of RNAi-mediated knock-down (KD) of IrInR, IrAKT, and IrTOR on tick blood-feeding and reproductive capacity. Weights of engorged IrInR KD females and laid egg clutches were reduced compared to the control group, and these quantitative parameters clearly correlated with the efficiency of RNAi-KD achieved in individual ticks. The most striking phenotype was observed for IrAKT KD that impaired tick feeding and completely aborted egg production. A recombinant extracellular fragment of the IrInR α-subunit was used to produce antibodies in experimental rabbits to assess its potential as a protective antigen against tick feeding and reproduction. Our data clearly indicate the functionality of the ISP in ticks and demonstrate the need for further investigation of specific roles played by the endogenous insulin-like peptides in tick physiological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tereza Kozelková
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Branišovská 31, 370 05, České Budějovice, Czech Republic; Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, 370 05, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - David Doležel
- Institute of Entomology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Branišovská 31, 370 05, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Grunclová
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Branišovská 31, 370 05, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Matěj Kučera
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Branišovská 31, 370 05, České Budějovice, Czech Republic; Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, 370 05, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Perner
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Branišovská 31, 370 05, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Kopáček
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Branišovská 31, 370 05, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
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Martins LA, Bensaoud C, Kotál J, Chmelař J, Kotsyfakis M. Tick salivary gland transcriptomics and proteomics. Parasite Immunol 2020; 43:e12807. [PMID: 33135186 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
'Omics' technologies have facilitated the identification of hundreds to thousands of tick molecules that mediate tick feeding and play a role in the transmission of tick-borne diseases. Deep sequencing methodologies have played a key role in this knowledge accumulation, profoundly facilitating the study of the biology of disease vectors lacking reference genomes. For example, the nucleotide sequences of the entire set of tick salivary effectors, the so-called tick 'sialome', now contain at least one order of magnitude more transcript sequences compared to similar projects based on Sanger sequencing. Tick feeding is a complex and dynamic process, and while the dynamic 'sialome' is thought to mediate tick feeding success, exactly how transcriptome dynamics relate to tick-host-pathogen interactions is still largely unknown. The identification and, importantly, the functional analysis of the tick 'sialome' is expected to shed light on this 'black box'. This information will be crucial for developing strategies to block pathogen transmission, not only for anti-tick vaccine development but also the discovery and development of new, pharmacologically active compounds for human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larissa Almeida Martins
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, 37005, Czech Republic
| | - Chaima Bensaoud
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, 37005, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Kotál
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, 37005, Czech Republic.,Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Jindřich Chmelař
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Michail Kotsyfakis
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, 37005, Czech Republic.,Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
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