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Mahmoud AH, Elhefnawei DM, EL-Desouky MA, Kadry MO. Reciprocal crosslink among MeCP2/BDNF /CREB signaling pinpointed in autism spectrum disorder. Toxicol Rep 2024; 12:91-99. [PMID: 38229920 PMCID: PMC10789594 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2023.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder, or individual disability (ID), is a condition characterized by complications in social interaction, restricted repetitive behavior, and difficulties in social communication. Neuquinon (NQ) possess a powerful therapeutic potential in various neurodegenerative disease. Nevertheless, contributing to NQ's low water solubility and bioavailability, its medicinal use has been constrained. Liposomes were supposed to be prospective drug-delivering agents for NQ, crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and reaching the target organs. The current investigation aims to track the signaling pathways that govern NQ and liposomal neuquinon (LNQ) action in autistic models generated by ethyl formic acid. The neurotransmitters gamma amino-butyric acid (GABA), acetylcholine (ACh), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in addition to, the gene expressions of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), and methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2) and the DNA damage COMET analysis at different time intervals of the study, were assessed. EFA in a dose of 500 mg/kg BW was used to induce autism in rats, and then NQ and LNQ were administered in 10 mg/kg and 2 mg/kg BW, respectively. The results revealed that NQ and LNQ significantly down-regulated BDNF, GABA, and AChE; on the other hand, they up-regulated MeCP2, CREB gene expressions, and ACh action. NQ and LNQ displayed improvement in DNA damage in almost all brain regions after EFA alterations; even better results were noticed post-LNQ therapy. Therefore, it may be concluded that neuquinon and liposomal-loaded neuquinon have a therapeutic index versus EFA-induced autism in a rat model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahlam H. Mahmoud
- Department of Therapeutic Chemistry, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Doaa M. Elhefnawei
- Department of Therapeutic Chemistry, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | | | - Mai O. Kadry
- Department of Therapeutic Chemistry, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
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2
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Lebeda D, Fierenz A, Werfel L, Rosin-Arbesfeld R, Hofhuis J, Thoms S. Systematic and quantitative analysis of stop codon readthrough in Rett syndrome nonsense mutations. J Mol Med (Berl) 2024; 102:641-653. [PMID: 38430393 PMCID: PMC11055764 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-024-02436-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
Rett syndrome (RTT) is a neurodevelopmental disorder resulting from genetic mutations in the methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) gene. Specifically, around 35% of RTT patients harbor premature termination codons (PTCs) within the MeCP2 gene due to nonsense mutations. A promising therapeutic avenue for these individuals involves the use of aminoglycosides, which stimulate translational readthrough (TR) by causing stop codons to be interpreted as sense codons. However, the effectiveness of this treatment depends on several factors, including the type of stop codon and the surrounding nucleotides, collectively referred to as the stop codon context (SCC). Here, we develop a high-content reporter system to precisely measure TR efficiency at different SCCs, assess the recovery of the full-length MeCP2 protein, and evaluate its subcellular localization. We have conducted a comprehensive investigation into the intricate relationship between SCC characteristics and TR induction, examining a total of 14 pathogenic MeCP2 nonsense mutations with the aim to advance the prospects of personalized therapy for individuals with RTT. Our results demonstrate that TR induction can successfully restore full-length MeCP2 protein, albeit to varying degrees, contingent upon the SCC and the specific position of the PTC within the MeCP2 mRNA. TR induction can lead to the re-establishment of nuclear localization of MeCP2, indicating the potential restoration of protein functionality. In summary, our findings underscore the significance of SCC-specific approaches in the development of tailored therapies for RTT. By unraveling the relationship between SCC and TR therapy, we pave the way for personalized, individualized treatment strategies that hold promise for improving the lives of individuals affected by this debilitating neurodevelopmental disorder. KEY MESSAGES: The efficiency of readthrough induction at MeCP2 premature termination codons strongly depends on the stop codon context. The position of the premature termination codon on the transcript influences the readthrough inducibility. A new high-content dual reporter assay facilitates the measurement and prediction of readthrough efficiency of specific nucleotide stop contexts. Readthrough induction results in the recovery of full-length MeCP2 and its re-localization to the nucleus. MeCP2 requires only one of its annotated nuclear localization signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Lebeda
- Department for Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Medical School EWL, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Adrian Fierenz
- Department of Child and Adolescent Health, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Lina Werfel
- Department of Child and Adolescent Health, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
- Present Address: Department of Pediatric Kidney, Liver and Metabolic Diseases, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Rina Rosin-Arbesfeld
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Julia Hofhuis
- Department for Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Medical School EWL, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Sven Thoms
- Department for Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Medical School EWL, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.
- Department of Child and Adolescent Health, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.
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Ortega-Alarcon D, Claveria-Gimeno R, Vega S, Kalani L, Jorge-Torres OC, Esteller M, Ausio J, Abian O, Velazquez-Campoy A. Extending MeCP2 interactome: canonical nucleosomal histones interact with MeCP2. Nucleic Acids Res 2024; 52:3636-3653. [PMID: 38321951 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkae051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024] Open
Abstract
MeCP2 is a general regulator of transcription involved in the repression/activation of genes depending on the local epigenetic context. It acts as a chromatin regulator and binds with exquisite specificity to gene promoters. The set of epigenetic marks recognized by MeCP2 has been already established (mainly, cytosine modifications in CpG and CpA), as well as many of the constituents of its interactome. We unveil a new set of interactions for MeCP2 with the four canonical nucleosomal histones. MeCP2 interacts with high affinity with H2A, H2B, H3 and H4. In addition, Rett syndrome associated mutations in MeCP2 and histone epigenetic marks modulate these interactions. Given the abundance and the structural/functional relevance of histones and their involvement in epigenetic regulation, this new set of interactions and its modulating elements provide a new addition to the 'alphabet' for this epigenetic reader.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Ortega-Alarcon
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Unit GBsC-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | | | - Sonia Vega
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Unit GBsC-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Ladan Kalani
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BCV8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - Olga C Jorge-Torres
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), 08916 Badalona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manel Esteller
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), 08916 Badalona, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Cáncer (CIBERONC), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Institucio Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), 08010 Barcelona, Spain
- Physiological Sciences Department, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona (UB), 08907 l'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Juan Ausio
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BCV8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - Olga Abian
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Unit GBsC-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en el Área Temática de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Adrian Velazquez-Campoy
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Unit GBsC-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en el Área Temática de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
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Bijlani S, Pang KM, Bugga LV, Rangasamy S, Narayanan V, Chatterjee S. Nuclease-free precise genome editing corrects MECP2 mutations associated with Rett syndrome. Front Genome Ed 2024; 6:1346781. [PMID: 38495533 PMCID: PMC10940404 DOI: 10.3389/fgeed.2024.1346781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Rett syndrome is an acquired progressive neurodevelopmental disorder caused by de novo mutations in the X-linked MECP2 gene which encodes a pleiotropic protein that functions as a global transcriptional regulator and a chromatin modifier. Rett syndrome predominantly affects heterozygous females while affected male hemizygotes rarely survive. Gene therapy of Rett syndrome has proven challenging due to a requirement for stringent regulation of expression with either over- or under-expression being toxic. Ectopic expression of MECP2 in conjunction with regulatory miRNA target sequences has achieved some success, but the durability of this approach remains unknown. Here we evaluated a nuclease-free homologous recombination (HR)-based genome editing strategy to correct mutations in the MECP2 gene. The stem cell-derived AAVHSCs have previously been shown to mediate seamless and precise HR-based genome editing. We tested the ability of HR-based genome editing to correct pathogenic mutations in Exons 3 and 4 of the MECP2 gene and restore the wild type sequence while preserving all native genomic regulatory elements associated with MECP2 expression, thus potentially addressing a significant issue in gene therapy for Rett syndrome. Moreover, since the mutations are edited directly at the level of the genome, the corrections are expected to be durable with progeny cells inheriting the edited gene. The AAVHSC MECP2 editing vector was designed to be fully homologous to the target MECP2 region and to insert a promoterless Venus reporter at the end of Exon 4. Evaluation of AAVHSC editing in a panel of Rett cell lines bearing mutations in Exons 3 and 4 demonstrated successful correction and rescue of expression of the edited MECP2 gene. Sequence analysis of edited Rett cells revealed successful and accurate correction of mutations in both Exons 3 and 4 and permitted mapping of HR crossover events. Successful correction was observed only when the mutations were flanked at both the 5' and 3' ends by crossover events, but not when both crossovers occurred either exclusively upstream or downstream of the mutation. Importantly, we concluded that pathogenic mutations were successfully corrected in every Rett line analyzed, demonstrating the therapeutic potential of HR-based genome editing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swati Bijlani
- Department of Surgery, Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Ka Ming Pang
- Department of Surgery, Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Lakshmi V. Bugga
- Department of Surgery, Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Sampath Rangasamy
- Center for Rare Childhood Disorders (C4RCD), Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen), Phoenix, AZ, United States
| | - Vinodh Narayanan
- Center for Rare Childhood Disorders (C4RCD), Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen), Phoenix, AZ, United States
| | - Saswati Chatterjee
- Department of Surgery, Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
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5
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Lockman S, Genung M, Sheikholeslami K, Sher AA, Kroft D, Buist M, Olson CO, Toor B, Rastegar M. Transcriptional Inhibition of the Mecp2 Promoter by MeCP2E1 and MeCP2E2 Isoforms Suggests Negative Auto-Regulatory Feedback that can be Moderated by Metformin. J Mol Neurosci 2024; 74:14. [PMID: 38277073 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-023-02177-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
The epigenetic factor Methyl-CpG-Binding Protein 2 (MeCP2) is a nuclear protein that binds methylated DNA molecules (both 5-methylcytosine and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine) and controls gene transcription. MeCP2 is an important transcription factor that acts in a dose-dependent manner in the brain; thus, its optimal expression level in brain cells is important. As such, its deregulated expression, as well as gain- or loss-of-function mutation, lead to impaired neurodevelopment, and compromised structure and function of brain cells, particularly in neurons. Studies from others and us have characterized two well-recognized MeCP2 isoforms: MeCP2E1 and MeCP2E2. We have reported that in Daoy medulloblastoma brain cells, MeCP2E2 overexpression leads to MeCP2E1 protein degradation. Whether MeCP2 isoforms regulate the Mecp2 promoter regulatory elements remains unexplored. We previously showed that in Daoy cells, metformin (an anti-diabetic drug) induces MECP2E1 transcripts. However, possible impact of metformin on the Mecp2 promoter activity was not studied. Here, we generated stably transduced Daoy cell reporters to express EGFP driven by the Mecp2 promoter. Transduced cells were sorted into four EGFP-expressing groups (R4-to-R7) with different intensities of EGFP expression. Our results confirm that the Mecp2 promoter is active in Daoy cells, and that overexpression of either isoform inhibits the Mecp2 promoter activity, as detected by flow cytometry and luciferase reporter assays. Interestingly, metformin partially relieved the inhibitory effect of MeCP2E1 on the Mecp2 promoter, detected by flow cytometry. Taken together, our data provide important insight towards the regulation of MeCP2 isoforms at the promoter level, which might have biological relevance to the neurobiology of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandhini Lockman
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Matthew Genung
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Kimia Sheikholeslami
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Annan Ali Sher
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Daniel Kroft
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Marjorie Buist
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Carl O Olson
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Brian Toor
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Mojgan Rastegar
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.
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6
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Lopes AG, Loganathan SK, Caliaperumal J. Rett Syndrome and the Role of MECP2: Signaling to Clinical Trials. Brain Sci 2024; 14:120. [PMID: 38391695 PMCID: PMC10886956 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14020120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Rett syndrome (RTT) is a neurological disorder that mostly affects females, with a frequency of 1 in 10,000 to 20,000 live birth cases. Symptoms include stereotyped hand movements; impaired learning, language, and communication skills; sudden loss of speech; reduced lifespan; retarded growth; disturbance of sleep and breathing; seizures; autism; and gait apraxia. Pneumonia is the most common cause of death for patients with Rett syndrome, with a survival rate of 77.8% at 25 years of age. Survival into the fifth decade is typical in Rett syndrome, and the leading cause of death is cardiorespiratory compromise. Rett syndrome progression has multiple stages; however, most phenotypes are associated with the nervous system and brain. In total, 95% of Rett syndrome cases are due to mutations in the MECP2 gene, an X-linked gene that encodes for the methyl CpG binding protein, a regulator of gene expression. In this review, we summarize the recent developments in the field of Rett syndrome and therapeutics targeting MECP2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adele Gaspar Lopes
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3G 2M1, Canada
- Cancer Research Program, Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC H4A 3J1, Canada
| | - Sampath Kumar Loganathan
- Cancer Research Program, Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC H4A 3J1, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC H4A 3J1, Canada
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head & Neck Surgery, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC H4A 3J1, Canada
- Departments of Experimental Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC H4A 3J1, Canada
| | - Jayalakshmi Caliaperumal
- Ingram School of Nursing, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2M7, Canada
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7
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Kalani L, Kim BH, Vincent JB, Ausió J. MeCP2 ubiquitination and sumoylation, in search of a function†. Hum Mol Genet 2023; 33:1-11. [PMID: 37694858 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddad150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
MeCP2 (Methyl CpG binding protein 2) is an intrinsically disordered protein that binds to methylated genome regions. The protein is a critical transcriptional regulator of the brain, and its mutations account for 95% of Rett syndrome (RTT) cases. Early studies of this neurodevelopmental disorder revealed a close connection with dysregulations of the ubiquitin system (UbS), notably as related to UBE3A, a ubiquitin ligase involved in the proteasome-mediated degradation of proteins. MeCP2 undergoes numerous post-translational modifications (PTMs), including ubiquitination and sumoylation, which, in addition to the potential functional outcomes of their monomeric forms in gene regulation and synaptic plasticity, in their polymeric organization, these modifications play a critical role in proteasomal degradation. UbS-mediated proteasomal degradation is crucial in maintaining MeCP2 homeostasis for proper function and is involved in decreasing MeCP2 in some RTT-causing mutations. However, regardless of all these connections to UbS, the molecular details involved in the signaling of MeCP2 for its targeting by the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and the functional roles of monomeric MeCP2 ubiquitination and sumoylation remain largely unexplored and are the focus of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ladan Kalani
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - Bo-Hyun Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - John B Vincent
- Molecular Neuropsychiatry & Development (MiND) Lab, Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 250 College St, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, 27 King's College Cir, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Juan Ausió
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
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8
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Siqueira E, Kim BH, Reser L, Chow R, Delaney K, Esteller M, Ross MM, Shabanowitz J, Hunt DF, Guil S, Ausió J. Analysis of the interplay between MeCP2 and histone H1 during in vitro differentiation of human ReNCell neural progenitor cells. Epigenetics 2023; 18:2276425. [PMID: 37976174 PMCID: PMC10769555 DOI: 10.1080/15592294.2023.2276425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023] Open
Abstract
An immortalized neural cell line derived from the human ventral mesencephalon, called ReNCell, and its MeCP2 knock out were used. With it, we characterized the chromatin compositional transitions undergone during differentiation, with special emphasis on linker histones. While the WT cells displayed the development of dendrites and axons the KO cells did not, despite undergoing differentiation as monitored by NeuN. ReNCell expressed minimal amounts of histone H1.0 and their linker histone complement consisted mainly of histone H1.2, H1.4 and H1.5. The overall level of histone H1 exhibited a trend to increase during the differentiation of MeCP2 KO cells. The phosphorylation levels of histone H1 proteins decreased dramatically during ReNCell's cell differentiation independently of the presence of MeCP2. Immunofluorescence analysis showed that MeCP2 exhibits an extensive co-localization with linker histones. Interestingly, the average size of the nucleus decreased during differentiation but in the MeCP2 KO cells, the smaller size of the nuclei at the start of differentiation increased by almost 40% after differentiation by 8 days (8 DIV). In summary, our data provide a compelling perspective on the dynamic changes of H1 histones during neural differentiation, coupled with the intricate interplay between H1 variants and MeCP2.Abbreviations: ACN, acetonitrile; A230, absorbance at 230 nm; bFGF, basic fibroblast growth factor; CM, chicken erythrocyte histone marker; CNS, central nervous system; CRISPR, clustered regulated interspaced short palindromic repeatsDAPI, 4,'6-diaminidino-2-phenylindole; DIV, days in vitro (days after differentiation is induced); DMEM, Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium; EGF, epidermal growth factor; ESC, embryonic stem cell; GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic proteinHPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography; IF, immunofluorescence; iPSCs, induced pluripotent stem cells; MAP2, microtubule-associated protein 2; MBD, methyl-binding domain; MeCP2, methyl-CpG binding protein 2; MS, mass spectrometry; NCP, nucleosome core particle; NeuN, neuron nuclear antigen; NPC, neural progenitor cellPAGE, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; PBS, phosphate buffered saline; PFA, paraformaldehyde; PTM, posttranslational modification; RP-HPLC, reversed phase HPLC; ReNCells, ReNCells VM; RPLP0, ribosomal protein lateral stalk subunit P0; RT-qPCR, reverse transcription quantitative polymerase-chain reaction; RTT, Rett Syndrome; SDS, sodium dodecyl sulphate; TAD, topologically associating domain; Triple KO, triple knockout.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edilene Siqueira
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
- National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Brasilia, Federal District, Brazil
| | - Bo-Hyun Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Larry Reser
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Robert Chow
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Kerry Delaney
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Manel Esteller
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
- Physiological Sciences Department, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Mark M. Ross
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Jeffrey Shabanowitz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Donald F. Hunt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Sonia Guil
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
- GermansTrias i Pujol Health Science Research Institute, Badalona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Juan Ausió
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
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Romano A, Lotan M, Fabio RA. A Severity Comparison between Italian and Israeli Rett Syndrome Cohorts. Diagnostics (Basel) 2023; 13:3390. [PMID: 37958286 PMCID: PMC10648171 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics13213390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 10/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Rett syndrome (RTT) is a neurodevelopmental disorder marked by profound cognitive, communication, and motor impairments. Despite identified genotype/phenotype connections, the extent of clinical severity varies even among individuals sharing the same genetic mutation. Diverse sociocultural environments, such as the level of inclusivity of the scholar system, the time spent with family, and the intensity of the rehabilitative intervention provided, might influence their development diversely. This study examines the severity of RTT in people in Italy and Israel, countries with distinct contradictory approaches to caring for those with intricate disabilities, across two age groups. Data from 136 Italian and 59 Israeli girls and women with RTT were assessed and divided into two age categories: above and below 12 years. The RARS, a standardized RTT-specific clinical severity tool, was administered. Despite no differences in age and genetic characteristics, the Italian group showed better scores in the RARS motor and disease-related characteristics areas in both age groups. Moreover, the young Italian participants gathered better total RARS scores and emotional and behavioral characteristics area scores. Furthermore, the young group showed significantly less scoliosis, foot problems, and epilepsy than the older group. These findings endorse the inclusion of girls with RTT in the regular schooling system for a limited daily period, investing in high activity levels within the home and community environments, and suggest continuously providing the person with daily occasions of physical activity and socialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Romano
- Department of Health System Management, Ariel University, Ariel 4070000, Israel
| | - Meir Lotan
- Department of Physiotherapy, Ariel University, Ariel 4070000, Israel
- Israeli Rett Syndrome National Evaluation Team, Ramat Gan 5200100, Israel
| | - Rosa Angela Fabio
- Department of Economics, University of Messina, 98122 Messina, Italy
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10
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Rastegar M, Davie JR. MeCP2 is the protector of epigenome integrity, membrane-less nuclear architecture, and stability of chromatin assembly. Epigenomics 2023; 15:1027-1031. [PMID: 37937403 DOI: 10.2217/epi-2023-0310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Tweetable abstract MeCP2 is an epigenetic factor with global impact in epigenome integrity, membrane-less nuclear architecture, and chromatin stability. Our Editorial covers recent advances on these important topics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mojgan Rastegar
- Department of Biochemistry & Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, MB, R3E 0J9, Canada
| | - James R Davie
- Department of Biochemistry & Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, MB, R3E 0J9, Canada
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11
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Ortega-Alarcon D, Claveria-Gimeno R, Vega S, Jorge-Torres OC, Esteller M, Abian O, Velazquez-Campoy A. Unexpected thermodynamic signature for the interaction of hydroxymethylated DNA with MeCP2. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 232:123373. [PMID: 36702223 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Hydroxymethylated cytosine (5hmC) is a stable DNA epigenetic mark recognized by methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2), which acts as a transcriptional regulator and a global chromatin-remodeling element. Because 5hmC triggers a gene regulation response markedly different from that produced by methylated cytosine (5mC), both modifications must affect DNA structure and/or DNA interaction with MeCP2 differently. MeCP2 is a six-domain intrinsically disordered protein (IDP) with two domains responsible for dsDNA binding: methyl-CpG binding domain (MBD) and intervening domain (ID). Here we report the detailed thermodynamic characterization of the interaction of hmCpG-DNA with MeCP2. We find that hmCpG-DNA interacts with MeCP2 in a distinctly different mode with a particular thermodynamic signature, compared to methylated or unmethylated DNA. In addition, we find evidence for Rett syndrome-associated mutations altering the interaction of MeCP2 with dsDNA in a cytosine modification-specific manner which may correlate with disease onset time and clinical severity score.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Ortega-Alarcon
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units GBsC-CSIC-BIFI and ICVV-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50018, Spain
| | - Rafael Claveria-Gimeno
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units GBsC-CSIC-BIFI and ICVV-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50018, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Sonia Vega
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units GBsC-CSIC-BIFI and ICVV-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50018, Spain
| | - Olga C Jorge-Torres
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, 08916 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manel Esteller
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, 08916 Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), 28029 Madrid, Spain; Institucio Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), 08010 Barcelona, Spain; Physiological Sciences Department, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona (UB), l'Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Olga Abian
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units GBsC-CSIC-BIFI and ICVV-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50018, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en el Área Temática de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), 28029 Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain.
| | - Adrian Velazquez-Campoy
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units GBsC-CSIC-BIFI and ICVV-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50018, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, 08916 Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en el Área Temática de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), 28029 Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain.
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12
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MeCP2 Is an Epigenetic Factor That Links DNA Methylation with Brain Metabolism. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24044218. [PMID: 36835623 PMCID: PMC9966807 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24044218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
DNA methylation, one of the most well-studied epigenetic modifications, is involved in a wide spectrum of biological processes. Epigenetic mechanisms control cellular morphology and function. Such regulatory mechanisms involve histone modifications, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, non-coding regulatory RNA molecules, and RNA modifications. One of the most well-studied epigenetic modifications is DNA methylation that plays key roles in development, health, and disease. Our brain is probably the most complex part of our body, with a high level of DNA methylation. A key protein that binds to different types of methylated DNA in the brain is the methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2). MeCP2 acts in a dose-dependent manner and its abnormally high or low expression level, deregulation, and/or genetic mutations lead to neurodevelopmental disorders and aberrant brain function. Recently, some of MeCP2-associated neurodevelopmental disorders have emerged as neurometabolic disorders, suggesting a role for MeCP2 in brain metabolism. Of note, MECP2 loss-of-function mutation in Rett Syndrome is reported to cause impairment of glucose and cholesterol metabolism in human patients and/or mouse models of disease. The purpose of this review is to outline the metabolic abnormalities in MeCP2-associated neurodevelopmental disorders that currently have no available cure. We aim to provide an updated overview into the role of metabolic defects associated with MeCP2-mediated cellular function for consideration of future therapeutic strategies.
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13
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Shevkoplyas D, Vuu YM, Davie JR, Rastegar M. The Chromatin Structure at the MECP2 Gene and In Silico Prediction of Potential Coding and Non-Coding MECP2 Splice Variants. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232415643. [PMID: 36555295 PMCID: PMC9779294 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232415643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) is an epigenetic reader that binds to methylated CpG dinucleotides and regulates gene transcription. Mecp2/MECP2 gene has 4 exons, encoding for protein isoforms MeCP2E1 and MeCP2E2. MeCP2 plays key roles in neurodevelopment, therefore, its gain- and loss-of-function mutations lead to neurodevelopmental disorders including Rett Syndrome. Here, we describe the structure, functional domains, and evidence support for potential additional alternatively spliced MECP2 transcripts and protein isoforms. We conclude that NCBI MeCP2 isoforms 3 and 4 contain certain MeCP2 functional domains. Our in silico analysis led to identification of histone modification and accessibility profiles at the MECP2 gene and its cis-regulatory elements. We conclude that the human MECP2 gene associated histone post-translational modifications exhibit high similarity between males and females. Between brain regions, histone modifications were found to be less conserved and enriched within larger genomic segments named as "S1-S11". We also identified highly conserved DNA accessibility regions in different tissues and brain regions, named as "A1-A9" and "B1-B9". DNA methylation profile was similar between mid-frontal gyrus of donors 35 days-25 years of age. Based on ATAC-seq data, the identified hypomethylated regions "H1-H8" intersected with most regions of the accessible chromatin (A regions).
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14
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Chang KJ, Wu HY, Yarmishyn AA, Li CY, Hsiao YJ, Chi YC, Lo TC, Dai HJ, Yang YC, Liu DH, Hwang DK, Chen SJ, Hsu CC, Kao CL. Genetics behind Cerebral Disease with Ocular Comorbidity: Finding Parallels between the Brain and Eye Molecular Pathology. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23179707. [PMID: 36077104 PMCID: PMC9456058 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23179707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebral visual impairments (CVIs) is an umbrella term that categorizes miscellaneous visual defects with parallel genetic brain disorders. While the manifestations of CVIs are diverse and ambiguous, molecular diagnostics stand out as a powerful approach for understanding pathomechanisms in CVIs. Nevertheless, the characterization of CVI disease cohorts has been fragmented and lacks integration. By revisiting the genome-wide and phenome-wide association studies (GWAS and PheWAS), we clustered a handful of renowned CVIs into five ontology groups, namely ciliopathies (Joubert syndrome, Bardet–Biedl syndrome, Alstrom syndrome), demyelination diseases (multiple sclerosis, Alexander disease, Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease), transcriptional deregulation diseases (Mowat–Wilson disease, Pitt–Hopkins disease, Rett syndrome, Cockayne syndrome, X-linked alpha-thalassaemia mental retardation), compromised peroxisome disorders (Zellweger spectrum disorder, Refsum disease), and channelopathies (neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder), and reviewed several mutation hotspots currently found to be associated with the CVIs. Moreover, we discussed the common manifestations in the brain and the eye, and collated animal study findings to discuss plausible gene editing strategies for future CVI correction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kao-Jung Chang
- School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Yu Wu
- School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
| | | | - Cheng-Yi Li
- School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Jer Hsiao
- School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Chun Chi
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Chen Lo
- School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
| | - He-Jhen Dai
- School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Chiang Yang
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
| | - Ding-Hao Liu
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
| | - De-Kuang Hwang
- School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Jen Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Chien Hsu
- School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (C.-C.H.); (C.-L.K.); Tel.: +886-2-287-573-25 (C.-C.H.); +886-2-287-573-63 (C.-L.K.)
| | - Chung-Lan Kao
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan
- Center for Intelligent Drug Systems and Smart Bio-Devices (IDS2B), National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 300093, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (C.-C.H.); (C.-L.K.); Tel.: +886-2-287-573-25 (C.-C.H.); +886-2-287-573-63 (C.-L.K.)
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15
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Steinkellner H, Kempaiah P, Beribisky AV, Pferschy S, Etzler J, Huber A, Sarne V, Neuhaus W, Kuttke M, Bauer J, Arunachalam JP, Christodoulou J, Dressel R, Mildner A, Prinz M, Laccone F. TAT-MeCP2 protein variants rescue disease phenotypes in human and mouse models of Rett syndrome. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 209:972-983. [PMID: 35460749 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.04.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Rett syndrome (RTT) is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by pathogenic variants leading to functional impairment of the MeCP2 protein. Here, we used purified recombinant MeCP2e1 and MeCP2e2 protein variants fused to a TAT protein transduction domain (PTD) to evaluate their transduction ability into RTT patient-derived fibroblasts and the ability to carry out their cellular function. We then assessed their transduction ability and therapeutic effects in a RTT mouse model. In vitro, TAT-MeCP2e2-eGFP reversed the pathological hyperacetylation of histones H3K9 and H4K16, a hallmark of abolition of MeCP2 function. In vivo, intraperitoneal administration of TAT-MeCP2e1 and TAT-MeCP2e2 extended the lifespan of Mecp2-/y mice by >50%. This was accompanied by rescue of hippocampal CA2 neuron size in animals treated with TAT-MeCP2e1. Taken together, these findings provide a strong indication that recombinant TAT-MeCP2 can reach mouse brains following peripheral injection and can ameliorate the phenotype of RTT mouse models. Thus, our study serves as a first step in the development of a potentially novel RTT therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Steinkellner
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Prakasha Kempaiah
- Institute for Human Genetics, Georg August University, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany; Division of Infectious Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Alexander V Beribisky
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Sandra Pferschy
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia Etzler
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Anna Huber
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Vienna Doctoral School of Pharmaceutical, Nutritional and Sport Sciences (PhaNuSpo), University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Victoria Sarne
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Winfried Neuhaus
- AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Competence Center Molecular Diagnostics, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Mario Kuttke
- Institute for Vascular Biology, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jan Bauer
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jayamuruga P Arunachalam
- Institute for Human Genetics, Georg August University, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany; Division of Infectious Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - John Christodoulou
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute and Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Discipline of Child & Adolescent Health, Sydney Medical School, Australia
| | - Ralf Dressel
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Georg August University, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Alexander Mildner
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Franco Laccone
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Institute for Human Genetics, Georg August University, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany; Department of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Georg August University, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
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16
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A brief history of MECP2 duplication syndrome: 20-years of clinical understanding. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2022; 17:131. [PMID: 35313898 PMCID: PMC8939085 DOI: 10.1186/s13023-022-02278-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
MECP2 duplication syndrome (MDS) is a rare, X-linked, neurodevelopmental disorder caused by a duplication of the methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MECP2) gene-a gene in which loss-of-function mutations lead to Rett syndrome (RTT). MDS has an estimated live birth prevalence in males of 1/150,000. The key features of MDS include intellectual disability, developmental delay, hypotonia, seizures, recurrent respiratory infections, gastrointestinal problems, behavioural features of autism and dysmorphic features-although these comorbidities are not yet understood with sufficient granularity. This review has covered the past two decades of MDS case studies and series since the discovery of the disorder in 1999. After comprehensively reviewing the reported characteristics, this review has identified areas of limited knowledge that we recommend may be addressed by better phenotyping this disorder through an international data collection. This endeavour would also serve to delineate the clinical overlap between MDS and RTT.
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Tascini G, Dell'Isola GB, Mencaroni E, Di Cara G, Striano P, Verrotti A. Sleep Disorders in Rett Syndrome and Rett-Related Disorders: A Narrative Review. Front Neurol 2022; 13:817195. [PMID: 35299616 PMCID: PMC8923297 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.817195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Rett Syndrome (RTT) is a rare and severe X-linked developmental brain disorder that occurs primarily in females, with a ratio of 1:10.000. De novo mutations in the Methyl-CpG Binding protein 2 (MECP2) gene on the long arm of X chromosome are responsible for more than 95% cases of classical Rett. In the remaining cases (atypical Rett), other genes are involved such as the cyclin-dependent kinase-like 5 (CDKL5) and the forkhead box G1 (FOXG1). Duplications of the MECP2 locus cause MECP2 duplication syndrome (MDS) which concerns about 1% of male patients with intellectual disability. Sleep disorders are common in individuals with intellectual disability, while the prevalence in children is between 16 and 42%. Over 80% of individuals affected by RTT show sleep problems, with a higher prevalence in the first 7 years of life and some degree of variability in correlation to age and genotype. Abnormalities in circadian rhythm and loss of glutamate homeostasis play a key role in the development of these disorders. Sleep disorders, epilepsy, gastrointestinal problems characterize CDKL5 Deficiency Disorder (CDD). Sleep impairment is an area of overlap between RTT and MECP2 duplication syndrome along with epilepsy, regression and others. Sleep dysfunction and epilepsy are deeply linked. Sleep deprivation could be an aggravating factor of epilepsy and anti-comitial therapy could interfere in sleep structure. Epilepsy prevalence in atypical Rett syndrome with severe clinical phenotype is higher than in classical Rett syndrome. However, RTT present a significant lifetime risk of epilepsy too. Sleep disturbances impact on child's development and patients' families and the evidence for its management is still limited. The aim of this review is to analyze pathophysiology, clinical features, the impact on other comorbidities and the management of sleep disorders in Rett syndrome and Rett-related syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Tascini
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Pasquale Striano
- Pediatric Neurology and Muscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS "G. Gaslini" Institute, Genoa, Italy.,Department of Neurosciences, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
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18
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Epigenome editing and epigenetic gene regulation in disease phenotypes. KOREAN J CHEM ENG 2022; 39:1361-1367. [DOI: 10.1007/s11814-022-1076-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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19
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Siqueira E, Obiols-Guardia A, Jorge-Torres OC, Oliveira-Mateos C, Soler M, Ramesh-Kumar D, Setién F, van Rossum D, Pascual-Alonso A, Xiol C, Ivan C, Shimizu M, Armstrong J, Calin GA, Pasterkamp RJ, Esteller M, Guil S. Analysis of the circRNA and T-UCR populations identifies convergent pathways in mouse and human models of Rett syndrome. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2022; 27:621-644. [PMID: 35036070 PMCID: PMC8749388 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2021.12.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Noncoding RNAs play regulatory roles in physiopathology, but their involvement in neurodevelopmental diseases is poorly understood. Rett syndrome is a severe, progressive neurodevelopmental disorder linked to loss-of-function mutations of the MeCP2 gene for which no cure is yet available. Analysis of the noncoding RNA profile corresponding to the brain-abundant circular RNA (circRNA) and transcribed-ultraconserved region (T-UCR) populations in a mouse model of the disease reveals widespread dysregulation and enrichment in glutamatergic excitatory signaling and microtubule cytoskeleton pathways of the corresponding host genes. Proteomic analysis of hippocampal samples from affected individuals confirms abnormal levels of several cytoskeleton-related proteins together with key alterations in neurotransmission. Importantly, the glutamate receptor GRIA3 gene displays altered biogenesis in affected individuals and in vitro human cells and is influenced by expression of two ultraconserved RNAs. We also describe post-transcriptional regulation of SIRT2 by circRNAs, which modulates acetylation and total protein levels of GluR-1. As a consequence, both regulatory mechanisms converge on the biogenesis of AMPA receptors, with an effect on neuronal differentiation. In both cases, the noncoding RNAs antagonize MeCP2-directed regulation. Our findings indicate that noncoding transcripts may contribute to key alterations in Rett syndrome and are not only useful tools for revealing dysregulated processes but also molecules of biomarker value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edilene Siqueira
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Barcelona, 08916 Catalonia, Spain
- Cancer Epigenetics and Biology Program (PEBC), Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, 08908 Catalonia, Spain
- National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Brasilia, 71605-001 Federal District, Brazil
| | - Aida Obiols-Guardia
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Barcelona, 08916 Catalonia, Spain
- Cancer Epigenetics and Biology Program (PEBC), Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, 08908 Catalonia, Spain
| | - Olga C. Jorge-Torres
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Barcelona, 08916 Catalonia, Spain
- Cancer Epigenetics and Biology Program (PEBC), Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, 08908 Catalonia, Spain
| | | | - Marta Soler
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Barcelona, 08916 Catalonia, Spain
| | - Deepthi Ramesh-Kumar
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Barcelona, 08916 Catalonia, Spain
| | - Fernando Setién
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Barcelona, 08916 Catalonia, Spain
| | - Daniëlle van Rossum
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Ainhoa Pascual-Alonso
- Fundación San Juan de Dios, Barcelona, 08950 Catalonia, Spain
- Institut de Recerca Pediàtrica, Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, 08950 Catalonia, Spain
| | - Clara Xiol
- Fundación San Juan de Dios, Barcelona, 08950 Catalonia, Spain
- Institut de Recerca Pediàtrica, Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, 08950 Catalonia, Spain
| | - Cristina Ivan
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Center for RNA Interference and Non-coding RNAs, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Masayoshi Shimizu
- Department of Translational Molecular Pathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Center for RNA Interference and Non-coding RNAs, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Judith Armstrong
- Institut de Recerca Pediàtrica, Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, 08950 Catalonia, Spain
- Servei de Medicina Genètica i Molecular, Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, 08950 Catalonia, Spain
- CIBER-ER (Biomedical Network Research Center for Rare Diseases), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - George A. Calin
- Department of Translational Molecular Pathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Center for RNA Interference and Non-coding RNAs, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - R. Jeroen Pasterkamp
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Manel Esteller
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Barcelona, 08916 Catalonia, Spain
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red Cancer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, 08010 Catalonia, Spain
- Physiological Sciences Department, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, 08907 Catalonia, Spain
| | - Sonia Guil
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Barcelona, 08916 Catalonia, Spain
- Cancer Epigenetics and Biology Program (PEBC), Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, 08908 Catalonia, Spain
- Germans Trias i Pujol Health Science Research Institute, Badalona, Barcelona, 08916 Catalonia, Spain
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Sánchez-Lafuente CL, Kalynchuk LE, Caruncho HJ, Ausió J. The Role of MeCP2 in Regulating Synaptic Plasticity in the Context of Stress and Depression. Cells 2022; 11:cells11040748. [PMID: 35203405 PMCID: PMC8870391 DOI: 10.3390/cells11040748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2) is a transcriptional regulator that is highly abundant in the brain. It binds to methylated genomic DNA to regulate a range of physiological functions implicated in neuronal development and adult synaptic plasticity. MeCP2 has mainly been studied for its role in neurodevelopmental disorders, but alterations in MeCP2 are also present in stress-related disorders such as major depression. Impairments in both stress regulation and synaptic plasticity are associated with depression, but the specific mechanisms underlying these changes have not been identified. Here, we review the interplay between stress, synaptic plasticity, and MeCP2. We focus our attention on the transcriptional regulation of important neuronal plasticity genes such as BDNF and reelin (RELN). Moreover, we provide evidence from recent studies showing a link between chronic stress-induced depressive symptoms and dysregulation of MeCP2 expression, underscoring the role of this protein in stress-related pathology. We conclude that MeCP2 is a promising target for the development of novel, more efficacious therapeutics for the treatment of stress-related disorders such as depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla L. Sánchez-Lafuente
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada; (C.L.S.-L.); (L.E.K.); (H.J.C.)
| | - Lisa E. Kalynchuk
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada; (C.L.S.-L.); (L.E.K.); (H.J.C.)
| | - Hector J. Caruncho
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada; (C.L.S.-L.); (L.E.K.); (H.J.C.)
| | - Juan Ausió
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 3P6, Canada
- Correspondence:
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21
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Technological Improvements in the Genetic Diagnosis of Rett Syndrome Spectrum Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910375. [PMID: 34638716 PMCID: PMC8508637 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Rett syndrome (RTT) is a severe neurodevelopmental disorder that constitutes the second most common cause of intellectual disability in females worldwide. In the past few years, the advancements in genetic diagnosis brought by next generation sequencing (NGS), have made it possible to identify more than 90 causative genes for RTT and significantly overlapping phenotypes (RTT spectrum disorders). Therefore, the clinical entity known as RTT is evolving towards a spectrum of overlapping phenotypes with great genetic heterogeneity. Hence, simultaneous multiple gene testing and thorough phenotypic characterization are mandatory to achieve a fast and accurate genetic diagnosis. In this review, we revise the evolution of the diagnostic process of RTT spectrum disorders in the past decades, and we discuss the effectiveness of state-of-the-art genetic testing options, such as clinical exome sequencing and whole exome sequencing. Moreover, we introduce recent technological advancements that will very soon contribute to the increase in diagnostic yield in patients with RTT spectrum disorders. Techniques such as whole genome sequencing, integration of data from several “omics”, and mosaicism assessment will provide the tools for the detection and interpretation of genomic variants that will not only increase the diagnostic yield but also widen knowledge about the pathophysiology of these disorders.
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22
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Pascual-Alonso A, Martínez-Monseny AF, Xiol C, Armstrong J. MECP2-Related Disorders in Males. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:9610. [PMID: 34502518 PMCID: PMC8431762 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MECP2) is located at Xq28 and is a multifunctional gene with ubiquitous expression. Loss-of-function mutations in MECP2 are associated with Rett syndrome (RTT), which is a well-characterized disorder that affects mainly females. In boys, however, mutations in MECP2 can generate a wide spectrum of clinical presentations that range from mild intellectual impairment to severe neonatal encephalopathy and premature death. Thus, males can be more difficult to classify and diagnose than classical RTT females. In addition, there are some variants of unknown significance in MECP2, which further complicate the diagnosis of these children. Conversely, the entire duplication of the MECP2 gene is related to MECP2 duplication syndrome (MDS). Unlike in RTT, in MDS, males are predominantly affected. Usually, the duplication is inherited from an apparently asymptomatic carrier mother. Both syndromes share some characteristics, but also differ in some aspects regarding the clinical picture and evolution. In the following review, we present a thorough description of the different types of MECP2 variants and alterations that can be found in males, and explore several genotype-phenotype correlations, although there is still a lot to understand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ainhoa Pascual-Alonso
- Fundació Per la Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Santa Rosa 39-57, 08950 Esplugues de Llobregat, Spain; (A.P.-A.); (C.X.)
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Santa Rosa 39-57, 08950 Esplugues de Llobregat, Spain;
| | - Antonio F. Martínez-Monseny
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Santa Rosa 39-57, 08950 Esplugues de Llobregat, Spain;
- Clinical Genetics, Molecular and Genetic Medicine Section, Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, 08950 Esplugues de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Clara Xiol
- Fundació Per la Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Santa Rosa 39-57, 08950 Esplugues de Llobregat, Spain; (A.P.-A.); (C.X.)
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Santa Rosa 39-57, 08950 Esplugues de Llobregat, Spain;
| | - Judith Armstrong
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Santa Rosa 39-57, 08950 Esplugues de Llobregat, Spain;
- Clinical Genetics, Molecular and Genetic Medicine Section, Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, 08950 Esplugues de Llobregat, Spain
- CIBER-ER (Biomedical Network Research Center for Rare Diseases), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain
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23
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Fioriniello S, Csukonyi E, Marano D, Brancaccio A, Madonna M, Zarrillo C, Romano A, Marracino F, Matarazzo MR, D'Esposito M, Della Ragione F. MeCP2 and Major Satellite Forward RNA Cooperate for Pericentric Heterochromatin Organization. Stem Cell Reports 2021; 15:1317-1332. [PMID: 33296675 PMCID: PMC7724518 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2020.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Revised: 11/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) has historically been linked to heterochromatin organization, and in mouse cells it accumulates at pericentric heterochromatin (PCH), closely following major satellite (MajSat) DNA distribution. However, little is known about the specific function of MeCP2 in these regions. We describe the first evidence of a role in neurons for MeCP2 and MajSat forward (MajSat-fw) RNA in reciprocal targeting to PCH through their physical interaction. Moreover, MeCP2 contributes to maintenance of PCH by promoting deposition of H3K9me3 and H4K20me3. We highlight that the MeCP2B isoform is required for correct higher-order PCH organization, and underline involvement of the methyl-binding and transcriptional repression domains. The T158 residue, which is commonly mutated in Rett patients, is directly involved in this process. Our findings support the hypothesis that MeCP2 and the MajSat-fw transcript are mutually dependent for PCH organization, and contribute to clarify MeCP2 function in the regulation of chromatin architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Fioriniello
- Institute of Genetics and Biophysics 'A. Buzzati-Traverso', CNR, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Eva Csukonyi
- Institute of Genetics and Biophysics 'A. Buzzati-Traverso', CNR, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Domenico Marano
- Institute of Genetics and Biophysics 'A. Buzzati-Traverso', CNR, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Arianna Brancaccio
- Institute of Genetics and Biophysics 'A. Buzzati-Traverso', CNR, Naples 80131, Italy
| | | | - Carmela Zarrillo
- Institute of Genetics and Biophysics 'A. Buzzati-Traverso', CNR, Naples 80131, Italy
| | | | | | - Maria R Matarazzo
- Institute of Genetics and Biophysics 'A. Buzzati-Traverso', CNR, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Maurizio D'Esposito
- Institute of Genetics and Biophysics 'A. Buzzati-Traverso', CNR, Naples 80131, Italy
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24
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Rodrigues DC, Mufteev M, Ellis J. Regulation, diversity and function of MECP2 exon and 3'UTR isoforms. Hum Mol Genet 2021; 29:R89-R99. [PMID: 32681172 PMCID: PMC7530521 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddaa154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MECP2) is a critical global regulator of gene expression. Mutations in MECP2 cause neurodevelopmental disorders including Rett syndrome (RTT). MECP2 exon 2 is spliced into two alternative messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) isoforms encoding MECP2-E1 or MECP2-E2 protein isoforms that differ in their N-termini. MECP2-E2, isolated first, was used to define the general roles of MECP2 in methyl-deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) binding, targeting of transcriptional regulatory complexes, and its disease-causing impact in RTT. It was later found that MECP2-E1 is the most abundant isoform in the brain and its exon 1 is also mutated in RTT. MECP2 transcripts undergo alternative polyadenylation generating mRNAs with four possible 3'untranslated region (UTR) lengths ranging from 130 to 8600 nt. Together, the exon and 3'UTR isoforms display remarkable abundance disparity across cell types and tissues during development. These findings indicate discrete means of regulation and suggest that protein isoforms perform non-overlapping roles. Multiple regulatory programs have been explored to explain these disparities. DNA methylation patterns of the MECP2 promoter and first intron impact MECP2-E1 and E2 isoform levels. Networks of microRNAs and RNA-binding proteins also post-transcriptionally regulate the stability and translation efficiency of MECP2 3'UTR isoforms. Finally, distinctions in biophysical properties in the N-termini between MECP2-E1 and E2 lead to variable protein stabilities and DNA binding dynamics. This review describes the steps taken from the discovery of MECP2, the description of its key functions, and its association with RTT, to the emergence of evidence revealing how MECP2 isoforms are differentially regulated at the transcriptional, post-transcriptional and post-translational levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deivid Carvalho Rodrigues
- Program in Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Marat Mufteev
- Program in Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5G 0A4, Canada.,Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - James Ellis
- Program in Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5G 0A4, Canada.,Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto ON M5S 1A8, Canada
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25
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Buist M, Fuss D, Rastegar M. Transcriptional Regulation of MECP2E1-E2 Isoforms and BDNF by Metformin and Simvastatin through Analyzing Nascent RNA Synthesis in a Human Brain Cell Line. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11081253. [PMID: 34439919 PMCID: PMC8391797 DOI: 10.3390/biom11081253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 08/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) is the main DNA methyl-binding protein in the brain that binds to 5-methylcytosine and 5-hydroxymethyl cytosine. MECP2 gene mutations are the main origin of Rett Syndrome (RTT), a neurodevelopmental disorder in young females. The disease has no existing cure, however, metabolic drugs such as metformin and statins have recently emerged as potential therapeutic candidates. In addition, induced MECP2-BDNF homeostasis regulation has been suggested as a therapy avenue. Here, we analyzed nascent RNA synthesis versus steady state total cellular RNA to study the transcriptional effects of metformin (an anti-diabetic drug) on MECP2 isoforms (E1 and E2) and BNDF in a human brain cell line. Additionally, we investigated the impact of simvastatin (a cholesterol lowering drug) on transcriptional regulation of MECP2E1/E2-BDNF. Metformin was capable of post-transcriptionally inducing BDNF and/or MECP2E1, while transcriptionally inhibiting MECP2E2. In contrast simvastatin significantly inhibited BDNF transcription without significantly impacting MECP2E2 transcripts. Further analysis of ribosomal RNA transcripts confirmed that the drug neither individually nor in combination affected these fundamentally important transcripts. Experimental analysis was completed in conditions of the presence or absence of serum starvation that showed minimal impact for serum deprival, although significant inhibition of steady state MECP2E1 by simvastatin was only detected in non-serum starved cells. Taken together, our results suggest that metformin controls MECP2E1/E2-BDNF transcriptionally and/or post-transcriptionally, and that simvastatin is a potent transcriptional inhibitor of BDNF. The transcriptional effect of these drugs on MECP2E1/E2-BDNF were not additive under these tested conditions, however, either drug may have potential application for related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mojgan Rastegar
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(204)-272-3108; Fax: +1-(204)-789-3900
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26
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Stabilization Effect of Intrinsically Disordered Regions on Multidomain Proteins: The Case of the Methyl-CpG Protein 2, MeCP2. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11081216. [PMID: 34439881 PMCID: PMC8391517 DOI: 10.3390/biom11081216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Intrinsic disorder plays an important functional role in proteins. Disordered regions are linked to posttranslational modifications, conformational switching, extra/intracellular trafficking, and allosteric control, among other phenomena. Disorder provides proteins with enhanced plasticity, resulting in a dynamic protein conformational/functional landscape, with well-structured and disordered regions displaying reciprocal, interdependent features. Although lacking well-defined conformation, disordered regions may affect the intrinsic stability and functional properties of ordered regions. MeCP2, methyl-CpG binding protein 2, is a multifunctional transcriptional regulator associated with neuronal development and maturation. MeCP2 multidomain structure makes it a prototype for multidomain, multifunctional, intrinsically disordered proteins (IDP). The methyl-binding domain (MBD) is one of the key domains in MeCP2, responsible for DNA recognition. It has been reported previously that the two disordered domains flanking MBD, the N-terminal domain (NTD) and the intervening domain (ID), increase the intrinsic stability of MBD against thermal denaturation. In order to prove unequivocally this stabilization effect, ruling out any artifactual result from monitoring the unfolding MBD with a local fluorescence probe (the single tryptophan in MBD) or from driving the protein unfolding by temperature, we have studied the MBD stability by differential scanning calorimetry (reporting on the global unfolding process) and chemical denaturation (altering intramolecular interactions by a different mechanism compared to thermal denaturation).
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27
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Transcriptomic and Epigenomic Landscape in Rett Syndrome. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11070967. [PMID: 34209228 PMCID: PMC8301932 DOI: 10.3390/biom11070967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Revised: 06/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Rett syndrome (RTT) is an extremely invalidating, cureless, developmental disorder, and it is considered one of the leading causes of intellectual disability in female individuals. The vast majority of RTT cases are caused by de novo mutations in the X-linked Methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MECP2) gene, which encodes a multifunctional reader of methylated DNA. MeCP2 is a master epigenetic modulator of gene expression, with a role in the organization of global chromatin architecture. Based on its interaction with multiple molecular partners and the diverse epigenetic scenario, MeCP2 triggers several downstream mechanisms, also influencing the epigenetic context, and thus leading to transcriptional activation or repression. In this frame, it is conceivable that defects in such a multifaceted factor as MeCP2 lead to large-scale alterations of the epigenome, ranging from an unbalanced deposition of epigenetic modifications to a transcriptional alteration of both protein-coding and non-coding genes, with critical consequences on multiple downstream biological processes. In this review, we provide an overview of the current knowledge concerning the transcriptomic and epigenomic alterations found in RTT patients and animal models.
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28
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Sharifi O, Yasui DH. The Molecular Functions of MeCP2 in Rett Syndrome Pathology. Front Genet 2021; 12:624290. [PMID: 33968128 PMCID: PMC8102816 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.624290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
MeCP2 protein, encoded by the MECP2 gene, binds to DNA and affects transcription. Outside of this activity the true range of MeCP2 function is still not entirely clear. As MECP2 gene mutations cause the neurodevelopmental disorder Rett syndrome in 1 in 10,000 female births, much of what is known about the biologic function of MeCP2 comes from studying human cell culture models and rodent models with Mecp2 gene mutations. In this review, the full scope of MeCP2 research available in the NIH Pubmed (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/) data base to date is considered. While not all original research can be mentioned due to space limitations, the main aspects of MeCP2 and Rett syndrome research are discussed while highlighting the work of individual researchers and research groups. First, the primary functions of MeCP2 relevant to Rett syndrome are summarized and explored. Second, the conflicting evidence and controversies surrounding emerging aspects of MeCP2 biology are examined. Next, the most obvious gaps in MeCP2 research studies are noted. Finally, the most recent discoveries in MeCP2 and Rett syndrome research are explored with a focus on the potential and pitfalls of novel treatments and therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osman Sharifi
- LaSalle Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, UC Davis School of Medicine, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Dag H Yasui
- LaSalle Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, UC Davis School of Medicine, Davis, CA, United States
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29
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Gomes AR, Fernandes TG, Cabral JM, Diogo MM. Modeling Rett Syndrome with Human Pluripotent Stem Cells: Mechanistic Outcomes and Future Clinical Perspectives. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:3751. [PMID: 33916879 PMCID: PMC8038474 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Rett syndrome (RTT) is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by mutations in the gene encoding the methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2). Among many different roles, MeCP2 has a high phenotypic impact during the different stages of brain development. Thus, it is essential to intensively investigate the function of MeCP2, and its regulated targets, to better understand the mechanisms of the disease and inspire the development of possible therapeutic strategies. Several animal models have greatly contributed to these studies, but more recently human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have been providing a promising alternative for the study of RTT. The rapid evolution in the field of hPSC culture allowed first the development of 2D-based neuronal differentiation protocols, and more recently the generation of 3D human brain organoid models, a more complex approach that better recapitulates human neurodevelopment in vitro. Modeling RTT using these culture platforms, either with patient-specific human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) or genetically-modified hPSCs, has certainly contributed to a better understanding of the onset of RTT and the disease phenotype, ultimately allowing the development of high throughput drugs screening tests for potential clinical translation. In this review, we first provide a brief summary of the main neurological features of RTT and the impact of MeCP2 mutations in the neuropathophysiology of this disease. Then, we provide a thorough revision of the more recent advances and future prospects of RTT modeling with human neural cells derived from hPSCs, obtained using both 2D and organoids culture systems, and its contribution for the current and future clinical trials for RTT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Rita Gomes
- Department of Bioengineering and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (A.R.G.); (T.G.F.); (J.M.S.C.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular-João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Tiago G. Fernandes
- Department of Bioengineering and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (A.R.G.); (T.G.F.); (J.M.S.C.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Joaquim M.S. Cabral
- Department of Bioengineering and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (A.R.G.); (T.G.F.); (J.M.S.C.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria Margarida Diogo
- Department of Bioengineering and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (A.R.G.); (T.G.F.); (J.M.S.C.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
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30
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D'Mello SR. MECP2 and the Biology of MECP2 Duplication Syndrome. J Neurochem 2021; 159:29-60. [PMID: 33638179 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
MECP2 duplication syndrome (MDS), a rare X-linked genomic disorder affecting predominantly males, is caused by duplication of the chromosomal region containing the methyl CpG binding protein-2 (MECP2) gene, which encodes methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MECP2), a multi-functional protein required for proper brain development and maintenance of brain function during adulthood. Disease symptoms include severe motor and cognitive impairment, delayed or absent speech development, autistic features, seizures, ataxia, recurrent respiratory infections and shortened lifespan. The cellular and molecular mechanisms by which a relatively modest increase in MECP2 protein causes such severe disease symptoms are poorly understood and consequently there are no treatments available for this fatal disorder. This review summarizes what is known to date about the structure and complex regulation of MECP2 and its many functions in the developing and adult brain. Additionally, recent experimental findings on the cellular and molecular underpinnings of MDS based on cell culture and mouse models of the disorder are reviewed. The emerging picture from these studies is that MDS is a neurodegenerative disorder in which neurons die in specific parts of the central nervous system, including the cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum and spinal cord. Neuronal death likely results from astrocytic dysfunction, including a breakdown of glutamate homeostatic mechanisms. The role of elevations in the expression of glial acidic fibrillary protein (GFAP) in astrocytes and the microtubule-associated protein, Tau, in neurons to the pathogenesis of MDS is discussed. Lastly, potential therapeutic strategies to potentially treat MDS are discussed.
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31
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Ortega-Alarcon D, Claveria-Gimeno R, Vega S, Jorge-Torres OC, Esteller M, Abian O, Velazquez-Campoy A. Influence of the disordered domain structure of MeCP2 on its structural stability and dsDNA interaction. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 175:58-66. [PMID: 33548325 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.01.206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) is a transcriptional regulator and a chromatin-associated structural protein. MeCP2 deregulation results in two neurodevelopmental disorders: MeCP2 dysfunction is associated with Rett syndrome, while excess of activity is associated with MeCP2 duplication syndrome. MeCP2 is an intrinsically disordered protein (IDP) constituted by six structural domains with variable, small percentage of well-defined secondary structure. Two domains, methyl-CpG binding domain (MBD) and transcription repressor domain (TRD), are the elements responsible for dsDNA binding ability and recruitment of the gene transcription/silencing machinery, respectively. Previously we studied the influence of the completely disordered, MBD-flanking domains (N-terminal domain, NTD, and intervening domain, ID) on the structural and functional features of the MBD (Claveria-Gimeno, R. et al. Sci Rep. 2017, 7, 41,635). Here we report the biophysical study of the influence of the remaining domains (transcriptional repressor domain, TRD, and C-terminal domains, CTDα and CTDβ) on the structural stability of MBD and the dsDNA binding capabilities of MBD and ID. The influence of distant disordered domains on MBD properties makes it necessary to consider the NTD-MBD-ID variant as the minimal protein construct for studying dsDNA/chromatin binding properties, while the full-length protein should be considered for transcriptional regulation studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Ortega-Alarcon
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units IQFR-CSIC-BIFI, and GBsC-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50018, Spain
| | - Rafael Claveria-Gimeno
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units IQFR-CSIC-BIFI, and GBsC-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50018, Spain; Instituto Aragonés de Ciencias de la Salud (IACS), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Sonia Vega
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units IQFR-CSIC-BIFI, and GBsC-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50018, Spain
| | - Olga C Jorge-Torres
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), 08916 Badalona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manel Esteller
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), 08916 Badalona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red Cancer (CIBERONC), 28029 Madrid, Spain; Institucio Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), 08010 Barcelona, Spain; Physiological Sciences Department, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona (UB), 08907, l'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Olga Abian
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units IQFR-CSIC-BIFI, and GBsC-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50018, Spain; Instituto Aragonés de Ciencias de la Salud (IACS), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en el Área Temática de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), 28029 Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Adrian Velazquez-Campoy
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units IQFR-CSIC-BIFI, and GBsC-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50018, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en el Área Temática de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), 28029 Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; Fundación ARAID, Gobierno de Aragón, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain.
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Good KV, Vincent JB, Ausió J. MeCP2: The Genetic Driver of Rett Syndrome Epigenetics. Front Genet 2021; 12:620859. [PMID: 33552148 PMCID: PMC7859524 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.620859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) are the major cause of Rett syndrome (RTT), a rare neurodevelopmental disorder with a notable period of developmental regression following apparently normal initial development. Such MeCP2 alterations often result in changes to DNA binding and chromatin clustering ability, and in the stability of this protein. Among other functions, MeCP2 binds to methylated genomic DNA, which represents an important epigenetic mark with broad physiological implications, including neuronal development. In this review, we will summarize the genetic foundations behind RTT, and the variable degrees of protein stability exhibited by MeCP2 and its mutated versions. Also, past and emerging relationships that MeCP2 has with mRNA splicing, miRNA processing, and other non-coding RNAs (ncRNA) will be explored, and we suggest that these molecules could be missing links in understanding the epigenetic consequences incurred from genetic ablation of this important chromatin modifier. Importantly, although MeCP2 is highly expressed in the brain, where it has been most extensively studied, the role of this protein and its alterations in other tissues cannot be ignored and will also be discussed. Finally, the additional complexity to RTT pathology introduced by structural and functional implications of the two MeCP2 isoforms (MeCP2-E1 and MeCP2-E2) will be described. Epigenetic therapeutics are gaining clinical popularity, yet treatment for Rett syndrome is more complicated than would be anticipated for a purely epigenetic disorder, which should be taken into account in future clinical contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina V. Good
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - John B. Vincent
- Molecular Neuropsychiatry & Development (MiND) Lab, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Juan Ausió
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
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Role of DNA Methyl-CpG-Binding Protein MeCP2 in Rett Syndrome Pathobiology and Mechanism of Disease. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11010075. [PMID: 33429932 PMCID: PMC7827577 DOI: 10.3390/biom11010075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Revised: 01/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Rett Syndrome (RTT) is a severe, rare, and progressive developmental disorder with patients displaying neurological regression and autism spectrum features. The affected individuals are primarily young females, and more than 95% of patients carry de novo mutation(s) in the Methyl-CpG-Binding Protein 2 (MECP2) gene. While the majority of RTT patients have MECP2 mutations (classical RTT), a small fraction of the patients (atypical RTT) may carry genetic mutations in other genes such as the cyclin-dependent kinase-like 5 (CDKL5) and FOXG1. Due to the neurological basis of RTT symptoms, MeCP2 function was originally studied in nerve cells (neurons). However, later research highlighted its importance in other cell types of the brain including glia. In this regard, scientists benefitted from modeling the disease using many different cellular systems and transgenic mice with loss- or gain-of-function mutations. Additionally, limited research in human postmortem brain tissues provided invaluable findings in RTT pathobiology and disease mechanism. MeCP2 expression in the brain is tightly regulated, and its altered expression leads to abnormal brain function, implicating MeCP2 in some cases of autism spectrum disorders. In certain disease conditions, MeCP2 homeostasis control is impaired, the regulation of which in rodents involves a regulatory microRNA (miR132) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Here, we will provide an overview of recent advances in understanding the underlying mechanism of disease in RTT and the associated genetic mutations in the MECP2 gene along with the pathobiology of the disease, the role of the two most studied protein variants (MeCP2E1 and MeCP2E2 isoforms), and the regulatory mechanisms that control MeCP2 homeostasis network in the brain, including BDNF and miR132.
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Castro-Piedras I, Vartak D, Sharma M, Pandey S, Casas L, Molehin D, Rasha F, Fokar M, Nichols J, Almodovar S, Rahman RL, Pruitt K. Identification of Novel MeCP2 Cancer-Associated Target Genes and Post-Translational Modifications. Front Oncol 2020; 10:576362. [PMID: 33363010 PMCID: PMC7758440 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.576362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormal regulation of DNA methylation and its readers has been associated with a wide range of cellular dysfunction. Disruption of the normal function of DNA methylation readers contributes to cancer progression, neurodevelopmental disorders, autoimmune disease and other pathologies. One reader of DNA methylation known to be especially important is MeCP2. It acts a bridge and connects DNA methylation with histone modifications and regulates many gene targets contributing to various diseases; however, much remains unknown about how it contributes to cancer malignancy. We and others previously described novel MeCP2 post-translational regulation. We set out to test the hypothesis that MeCP2 would regulate novel genes linked with tumorigenesis and that MeCP2 is subject to additional post-translational regulation not previously identified. Herein we report novel genes bound and regulated by MeCP2 through MeCP2 ChIP-seq and RNA-seq analyses in two breast cancer cell lines representing different breast cancer subtypes. Through genomics analyses, we localize MeCP2 to novel gene targets and further define the full range of gene targets within breast cancer cell lines. We also further examine the scope of clinical and pre-clinical lysine deacetylase inhibitors (KDACi) that regulate MeCP2 post-translationally. Through proteomics analyses, we identify many additional novel acetylation sites, nine of which are mutated in Rett Syndrome. Our study provides important new insight into downstream targets of MeCP2 and provide the first comprehensive map of novel sites of acetylation associated with both pre-clinical and FDA-approved KDACi used in the clinic. This report examines a critical reader of DNA methylation and has important implications for understanding MeCP2 regulation in cancer models and identifying novel molecular targets associated with epigenetic therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Castro-Piedras
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - David Vartak
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Monica Sharma
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Somnath Pandey
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Laura Casas
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Deborah Molehin
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Fahmida Rasha
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Mohamed Fokar
- Center for Biotechnology & Genomics, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Jacob Nichols
- Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Sharilyn Almodovar
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | | | - Kevin Pruitt
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
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Ortega-Alarcon D, Claveria-Gimeno R, Vega S, Jorge-Torres OC, Esteller M, Abian O, Velazquez-Campoy A. Molecular Context-Dependent Effects Induced by Rett Syndrome-Associated Mutations in MeCP2. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10111533. [PMID: 33182787 PMCID: PMC7696773 DOI: 10.3390/biom10111533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) is a transcriptional regulator and a chromatin-binding protein involved in neuronal development and maturation. Loss-of-function mutations in MeCP2 result in Rett syndrome (RTT), a neurodevelopmental disorder that is the main cause of mental retardation in females. MeCP2 is an intrinsically disordered protein (IDP) constituted by six domains. Two domains are the main responsible elements for DNA binding (methyl-CpG binding domain, MBD) and recruitment of gene transcription/silencing machinery (transcription repressor domain, TRD). These two domains concentrate most of the RTT-associated mutations. R106W and R133C are associated with severe and mild RTT phenotype, respectively. We have performed a comprehensive characterization of the structural and functional impact of these substitutions at molecular level. Because we have previously shown that the MBD-flanking disordered domains (N-terminal domain, NTD, and intervening domain, ID) exert a considerable influence on the structural and functional features of the MBD (Claveria-Gimeno, R. et al. Sci Rep. 2017, 7, 41635), here we report the biophysical study of the influence of the protein scaffold on the structural and functional effect induced by these two RTT-associated mutations. These results represent an example of how a given mutation may show different effects (sometimes opposing effects) depending on the molecular context.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Ortega-Alarcon
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units IQFR-CSIC-BIFI, and GBsC-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (D.O.-A.); (R.C.-G.); (S.V.)
| | - Rafael Claveria-Gimeno
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units IQFR-CSIC-BIFI, and GBsC-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (D.O.-A.); (R.C.-G.); (S.V.)
- Instituto Aragonés de Ciencias de la Salud (IACS), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Sonia Vega
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units IQFR-CSIC-BIFI, and GBsC-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (D.O.-A.); (R.C.-G.); (S.V.)
| | - Olga C. Jorge-Torres
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), 08916 Badalona, Spain; (O.C.J.-T.); (M.E.)
| | - Manel Esteller
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), 08916 Badalona, Spain; (O.C.J.-T.); (M.E.)
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red Cancer (CIBERONC), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Institucio Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), 08010 Barcelona, Spain
- Physiological Sciences Department, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona (UB), l’Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Olga Abian
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units IQFR-CSIC-BIFI, and GBsC-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (D.O.-A.); (R.C.-G.); (S.V.)
- Instituto Aragonés de Ciencias de la Salud (IACS), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en el Área Temática de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Correspondence: (O.A.); (A.V.-C.); Tel.: +34-876-555-417 (O.A.); +34-976-762-996 (A.V.-C.)
| | - Adrian Velazquez-Campoy
- Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI), Joint Units IQFR-CSIC-BIFI, and GBsC-CSIC-BIFI, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (D.O.-A.); (R.C.-G.); (S.V.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en el Área Temática de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Fundación ARAID, Gobierno de Aragón, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Correspondence: (O.A.); (A.V.-C.); Tel.: +34-876-555-417 (O.A.); +34-976-762-996 (A.V.-C.)
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Arsenault J, Hooper AWM, Gholizadeh S, Kong T, Pacey LK, Koxhioni E, Niibori Y, Eubanks JH, Wang LY, Hampson DR. Interregulation between fragile X mental retardation protein and methyl CpG binding protein 2 in the mouse posterior cerebral cortex. Hum Mol Genet 2020; 29:3744-3756. [PMID: 33084871 PMCID: PMC7861017 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddaa226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Several X-linked neurodevelopmental disorders including Rett syndrome, induced by mutations in the MECP2 gene, and fragile X syndrome (FXS), caused by mutations in the FMR1 gene, share autism-related features. The mRNA coding for methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) has previously been identified as a substrate for the mRNA-binding protein, fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP), which is silenced in FXS. Here, we report a homeostatic relationship between these two key regulators of gene expression in mouse models of FXS (Fmr1 Knockout (KO)) and Rett syndrome (MeCP2 KO). We found that the level of MeCP2 protein in the cerebral cortex was elevated in Fmr1 KO mice, whereas MeCP2 KO mice displayed reduced levels of FMRP, implicating interplay between the activities of MeCP2 and FMRP. Indeed, knockdown of MeCP2 with short hairpin RNAs led to a reduction of FMRP in mouse Neuro2A and in human HEK-293 cells, suggesting a reciprocal coupling in the expression level of these two regulatory proteins. Intra-cerebroventricular injection of an adeno-associated viral vector coding for FMRP led to a concomitant reduction in MeCP2 expression in vivo and partially corrected locomotor hyperactivity. Additionally, the level of MeCP2 in the posterior cortex correlated with the severity of the hyperactive phenotype in Fmr1 KO mice. These results demonstrate that MeCP2 and FMRP operate within a previously undefined homeostatic relationship. Our findings also suggest that MeCP2 overexpression in Fmr1 KO mouse posterior cerebral cortex may contribute to the fragile X locomotor hyperactivity phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Arsenault
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3M2, Canada.,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.,Program in Neurosciences and Mental Health, Hospital for Sick Children Research Institute, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Alexander W M Hooper
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3M2, Canada
| | - Shervin Gholizadeh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3M2, Canada
| | - Tian Kong
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.,Program in Neurosciences and Mental Health, Hospital for Sick Children Research Institute, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Laura K Pacey
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3M2, Canada
| | - Enea Koxhioni
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3M2, Canada
| | - Yosuke Niibori
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3M2, Canada
| | - James H Eubanks
- Division of Genetics and Development, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5T 0S8, Canada.,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.,Department of Surgery, Division of Neurosurgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 1P5, Canada
| | - Lu-Yang Wang
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.,Program in Neurosciences and Mental Health, Hospital for Sick Children Research Institute, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - David R Hampson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3M2, Canada.,Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
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37
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Pejhan S, Del Bigio MR, Rastegar M. The MeCP2E1/E2-BDNF- miR132 Homeostasis Regulatory Network Is Region-Dependent in the Human Brain and Is Impaired in Rett Syndrome Patients. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:763. [PMID: 32974336 PMCID: PMC7471663 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Rett Syndrome (RTT) is a rare and progressive neurodevelopmental disorder that is caused by de novo mutations in the X-linked Methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MECP2) gene and is subjected to X-chromosome inactivation. RTT is commonly associated with neurological regression, autistic features, motor control impairment, seizures, loss of speech and purposeful hand movements, mainly affecting females. Different animal and cellular model systems have tremendously contributed to our current knowledge about MeCP2 and RTT. However, the majority of these findings remain unexamined in the brain of RTT patients. Based on previous studies in rodent brains, the highly conserved neuronal microRNA “miR132” was suggested to be an inhibitor of MeCP2 expression. The neuronal miR132 itself is induced by Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), a neurotransmitter modulator, which in turn is controlled by MeCP2. This makes the basis of the MECP2-BDNF-miR132 feedback regulatory loop in the brain. Here, we studied the components of this feedback regulatory network in humans, and its possible impairment in the brain of RTT patients. In this regard, we evaluated the transcript and protein levels of MECP2/MeCP2E1 and E2 isoforms, BDNF/BDNF, and miR132 (both 3p and 5p strands) by real time RT-PCR, Western blot, and ELISA in four different regions of the human RTT brains and their age-, post-mortem delay-, and sex-matched controls. The transcript level of the studied elements was significantly compromised in RTT patients, even though the change was not identical in different parts of the brain. Our data indicates that MeCP2E1/E2-BDNF protein levels did not follow their corresponding transcript trends. Correlational studies suggested that the MECP2E1/E2-BDNF-miR132 homeostasis regulation might not be similarly controlled in different parts of the human brain. Despite challenges in evaluating autopsy samples in rare diseases, our findings would help to shed some light on RTT pathobiology, and obscurities caused by limited studies on MeCP2 regulation in the human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shervin Pejhan
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Marc R Del Bigio
- Department of Pathology, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Mojgan Rastegar
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
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38
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Fan C, Zhang H, Fu L, Li Y, Du Y, Qiu Z, Lu F. Rett mutations attenuate phase separation of MeCP2. Cell Discov 2020; 6:38. [PMID: 32566246 PMCID: PMC7296026 DOI: 10.1038/s41421-020-0172-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Chunyan Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China
| | - Honglian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China
| | - Liangzheng Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China
| | - Yuejiao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China
| | - Yi Du
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China
| | - Zilong Qiu
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China
- Chinese Academy of Sciences Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 200031 Shanghai, China
- State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 200031 Shanghai, China
| | - Falong Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China
- The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China
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Cheema MS, Good KV, Kim B, Soufari H, O’Sullivan C, Freeman ME, Stefanelli G, Casas CR, Zengeler KE, Kennedy AJ, Eirin Lopez JM, Howard PL, Zovkic IB, Shabanowitz J, Dryhurst DD, Hunt DF, Mackereth CD, Ausió J. Deciphering the Enigma of the Histone H2A.Z-1/H2A.Z-2 Isoforms: Novel Insights and Remaining Questions. Cells 2020; 9:cells9051167. [PMID: 32397240 PMCID: PMC7290884 DOI: 10.3390/cells9051167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The replication independent (RI) histone H2A.Z is one of the more extensively studied variant members of the core histone H2A family, which consists of many replication dependent (RD) members. The protein has been shown to be indispensable for survival, and involved in multiple roles from DNA damage to chromosome segregation, replication, and transcription. However, its functional involvement in gene expression is controversial. Moreover, the variant in several groups of metazoan organisms consists of two main isoforms (H2A.Z-1 and H2A.Z-2) that differ in a few (3–6) amino acids. They comprise the main topic of this review, starting from the events that led to their identification, what is currently known about them, followed by further experimental, structural, and functional insight into their roles. Despite their structural differences, a direct correlation to their functional variability remains enigmatic. As all of this is being elucidated, it appears that a strong functional involvement of isoform variability may be connected to development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manjinder S. Cheema
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 3P6, Canada; (M.S.C.); (K.V.G.); (B.K.); (C.O.); (M.E.F.); (P.L.H.); (D.D.D.)
| | - Katrina V. Good
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 3P6, Canada; (M.S.C.); (K.V.G.); (B.K.); (C.O.); (M.E.F.); (P.L.H.); (D.D.D.)
| | - Bohyun Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 3P6, Canada; (M.S.C.); (K.V.G.); (B.K.); (C.O.); (M.E.F.); (P.L.H.); (D.D.D.)
| | - Heddy Soufari
- Institut Européen de Chimie et Biologie, Univ. Bordeaux, 2 rue Robert Escarpit, F-33607 Pessac, France; (H.S.); (C.D.M.)
- Inserm U1212, CNRS UMR 5320, ARNA Laboratory, Univ. Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, F-33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Connor O’Sullivan
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 3P6, Canada; (M.S.C.); (K.V.G.); (B.K.); (C.O.); (M.E.F.); (P.L.H.); (D.D.D.)
| | - Melissa E. Freeman
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 3P6, Canada; (M.S.C.); (K.V.G.); (B.K.); (C.O.); (M.E.F.); (P.L.H.); (D.D.D.)
| | - Gilda Stefanelli
- Department of Neurosciences & Mental Health, the Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada; (G.S.); (I.B.Z.)
| | - Ciro Rivera Casas
- Environmental Epigenetics Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International UniversityNorth Miami, FL 33181, USA; (C.R.C.); (J.M.E.L.)
| | - Kristine E. Zengeler
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Bates College, 2 Andrews Road, Lewiston, ME 04240, USA; (K.E.Z.); (A.J.K.)
| | - Andrew J. Kennedy
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Bates College, 2 Andrews Road, Lewiston, ME 04240, USA; (K.E.Z.); (A.J.K.)
| | - Jose Maria Eirin Lopez
- Environmental Epigenetics Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International UniversityNorth Miami, FL 33181, USA; (C.R.C.); (J.M.E.L.)
| | - Perry L. Howard
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 3P6, Canada; (M.S.C.); (K.V.G.); (B.K.); (C.O.); (M.E.F.); (P.L.H.); (D.D.D.)
| | - Iva B. Zovkic
- Department of Neurosciences & Mental Health, the Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada; (G.S.); (I.B.Z.)
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Jeffrey Shabanowitz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA; (J.S.); (D.F.H.)
| | - Deanna D. Dryhurst
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 3P6, Canada; (M.S.C.); (K.V.G.); (B.K.); (C.O.); (M.E.F.); (P.L.H.); (D.D.D.)
| | - Donald F. Hunt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA; (J.S.); (D.F.H.)
- Department of Pathology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA
| | - Cameron D. Mackereth
- Institut Européen de Chimie et Biologie, Univ. Bordeaux, 2 rue Robert Escarpit, F-33607 Pessac, France; (H.S.); (C.D.M.)
- Inserm U1212, CNRS UMR 5320, ARNA Laboratory, Univ. Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, F-33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Juan Ausió
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 3P6, Canada; (M.S.C.); (K.V.G.); (B.K.); (C.O.); (M.E.F.); (P.L.H.); (D.D.D.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-250-721-8863; Fax: +1-250-721-8855
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