Hypoxia-induced miR-191-C/EBPβ signaling regulates cell proliferation and apoptosis of fibroblast-like synoviocytes from patients with rheumatoid arthritis

Unveiling Novel Drug Targets and Emerging Therapies for Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Comprehensive Review

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic debilitating autoimmune disease, that causes joint damage, deformities, and decreased functionality. In addition, RA can also impact organs like the skin, lungs, eyes, and blood vessels. This autoimmune condition arises when the immune system erroneously targets the joint synovial membrane, resulting in synovitis, pannus formation, and cartilage damage. RA treatment is often holistic, integrating medication, physical therapy, and lifestyle modifications. Its main objective is to achieve remission or low disease activity by utilizing a "treat-to-target" approach that optimizes drug usage and dose adjustments based on clinical response and disease activity markers. The primary RA treatment uses disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) that help to interrupt the inflammatory process. When there is an inadequate response, a combination of biologicals and DMARDs is recommended. Biological therapies target inflammatory pathways and have shown promising results in managing RA symptoms. Close monitoring for adverse effects and disease progression is critical to ensure optimal treatment outcomes. A deeper understanding of the pathways and mechanisms will allow new treatment strategies that minimize adverse effects and maintain quality of life. This review discusses the potential targets that can be used for designing and implementing precision medicine in RA treatment, spotlighting the latest breakthroughs in biologics, JAK inhibitors, IL-6 receptor antagonists, TNF blockers, and disease-modifying noncoding RNAs.

Tetramethylpyrazine alleviates hypoxia-induced proliferation, migration, and inflammatory response of fibroblast-like synoviocytes via inhibiting the HIF-1α- circCDC42BPB pathway

OBJECTIVES

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory joint disease, which might trigger cartilage, bone damage, and disability. Recent studies have suggested that Tetramethylpyrazine (TMP), an alkaloid monomer isolated from the rhizome of the traditional herbal medicine Ligusticum wallichii Franch, exerts a broad spectrum of pharmacological properties, containing anti-inflammatory. This study aimed to analyze the role and underlying mechanism of TMP in RA.

METHODS

Under Hypoxia condition, RA-Fibroblast-like synoviocyte (FLS) were treated with TMP at different doses. Cell viability, proliferation, cell cycle progression, and migration were detected using Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay, 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) assay, flow cytometry assay, wound healing assay, and transwell assay. Cyclin D1, Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), Matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2), MMP9, and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) protein levels were measured using western blot assay. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-8 were evaluated using ELISA. Circular RNA (circRNA) hsa_circ_0005178 (circCDC42BPB), CDC42BPB, and HIF-1α expression were determined using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Binding between HIF-1α and CDC42BPB promoter was predicted by JASPAR and verified using dual-luciferase reporter and Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays.

RESULTS

TMP might hinder FLS proliferation, cycle progression, migration, and inflammatory response under hypoxic conditions. CircCDC42BPB expression was increased in RA patients and RA-FLSs treated with hypoxia, while its level was obviously reduced in RA-FLSs treated with hypoxia and TMP. TMP might abolish hypoxia-induced circCDC42BPB expression. Upregulation of circCDC42BPB might partially overturn the repression of TMP on hypoxia-caused RA-FLS damage. TMP might regulate circCDC42BPB level via HIF-1α in RA-FLSs under hypoxic conditions.

CONCLUSION

TMP might block RA-FLS injury partly via regulating the HIF-1α- circCDC42BPB pathway, providing a promising therapeutic target for RA.

Identification of the shared genes in type 2 diabetes mellitus and osteoarthritis and the role of quercetin

This study investigated the underlying comorbidity mechanism between type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and osteoarthritis (OA), while also assessing the therapeutic potential of quercetin for early intervention and treatment of these two diseases. The shared genes were obtained through GEO2R, limma and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), and validated using clinical databases and the area under the curves (ROC). Functional enrichment analysis was conducted to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of comorbidity between T2DM and OA. The infiltration of immune cells was analysed using the CIBERSORT algorithm in conjunction with ESTIMATE algorithm. Subsequently, transcriptional regulation analysis, potential chemical prediction, gene-disease association, relationships between the shared genes and ferroptosis as well as immunity-related genes were investigated along with molecular docking. We identified the 12 shared genes (EPHA3, RASIP1, PENK, LRRC17, CEBPB, EFEMP2, UBAP1, PPP1R15A, SPEN, MAFF, GADD45B and KLF4) across the four datasets. Our predictions suggested that targeting these shared genes could potentially serve as therapeutic interventions for both T2DM and OA. Specifically, they are involved in key signalling pathways such as p53, IL-17, NF-kB and MAPK signalling pathways. Furthermore, the regulation of ferroptosis and immunity appears to be interconnected in both diseases. Notably, in this context quercetin emerges as a promising drug candidate for treating T2DM and OA by specifically targeting the shared genes. We conducted a bioinformatics analysis to identify potential therapeutic targets, mechanisms and drugs for T2DM and OA, thereby offering novel insights into molecular therapy for these two diseases.

Non-coding RNAs involved in fibroblast-like synoviocyte functioning in arthritis rheumatoid: From pathogenesis to therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a polygenic autoimmune disorder with an uncertain etiology, primarily impacting the joints. Moreover, the disease may manifest beyond articular involvement, leading to extra-articular manifestations. Fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) are cells of mesenchymal origin that possess crucial physiological significance within the synovium, contributing to the synthesis of specific constituents found in the synovial fluid and articular cartilage. Consequently, there has been a growing focus on FLS as a potential therapeutic target in the context of RA. Recent investigations have revealed that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) serve as pivotal regulators of FLS function, with their dysregulated expression patterns being detected within FLS populations. NcRNAs, such as microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs), assume essential functions as regulators of gene expression at both the post-transcriptional and transcriptional levels, and also serve as guiding molecules for chromatin-modifying complexes. Majority of these ncRNAs contribute to various FLS activities including metastasis, proliferation, and cytokine production. In the current work, we comprehensively review the existing literature on ncRNAs, which play pivotal roles in FLS activity and the pathogenesis of RA. Furthermore, this study provides a comprehensive summary and description of the lncRNA/circRNA-miRNA-mRNA regulatory axes in FLS activity, along with potential implications for the RA development. As well, in the final section, we illustrated that therapeutic agents including herbal medicine, and exosomes by modulating ncRNAs regulate FLS activity.

C/EBPβ: The structure, regulation, and its roles in inflammation-related diseases

Inflammation, a mechanism of the human body, has been implicated in many diseases. Inflammatory responses include the release of inflammatory mediators by activating various signaling pathways. CCAAT/enhancer binding protein β (C/EBPβ), a transcription factor in the C/EBP family, contains the leucine zipper (bZIP) domain. The expression of C/EBPβ is mediated at the transcriptional and post-translational levels, such as phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation, and SUMOylation. C/EBPβ has been involved in inflammatory responses by mediating several signaling pathways, such as MAPK/NF-κB and IL-6/JAK/STAT3 pathways. C/EBPβ plays an important role in the pathological development of inflammation-related diseases, such as osteoarthritis, pneumonia, hepatitis, inflammatory bowel diseases, and rheumatoid arthritis. Here, we comprehensively discuss the structure and biological effects of C/EBPβ and its role in inflammatory diseases.

Novel HIF-1α Inhibitor AMSP-30m Mitigates the Pathogenic Cellular Behaviors of Hypoxia-Stimulated Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes and Alleviates Collagen-Induced Arthritis in Rats via Inhibiting Sonic Hedgehog Pathway

Synovial hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) is a prospective therapeutic target for rheumatoid arthritis (RA). AMSP-30 m, a novel HIF-1α inhibitor, was reported to have notable anti-arthritic effects in rats with adjuvant-induced arthritis. However, its roles in inhibiting the pathogenic behaviors of fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) and the involved mechanisms remain unknown. Here, AMSP-30 m inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis in hypoxia-induced RA FLS (MH7A cell line), as evidenced by decreased cell viability, reduced Ki67-positive cells, G0/G1 phase arrest, lowered C-myc and Cyclin D1 protein levels, emergence of apoptotic nuclear fragmentation, raised apoptosis rates, and activation of caspase 3. Furthermore, AMSP-30 m prevented hypoxia-induced increases in pro-inflammatory factor production, MMP-2 activity, migration index, migrated/invasive cells, and actin cytoskeletal rearrangement. In vivo, AMSP-30 m alleviated the severity of rat collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). Mechanically, AMSP-30 m reduced HIF-1α expression and blocked sonic hedgehog (Shh) pathway activation in hypoxia-induced MH7A cells and CIA rat synovium, as shown by declines in pathway-related proteins (Shh, Smo, and Gli-1). Particularly, the combination of Shh pathway inhibitor cyclopamine enhanced AMSP-30 m's inhibitory effects on the pathogenic behaviors of hypoxia-stimulated MH7A cells, whereas the combination of Shh pathway activator SAG canceled AMSP-30 m's therapeutic effects in vitro and in CIA rats, implying a close involvement of Shh pathway inhibition in its anti-arthritic effects. We likewise confirmed AMSP-30 m's anti-proliferative role in hypoxia-induced primary CIA FLS. Totally, AMSP-30 m suppressed hypoxia-induced proliferation, inflammation, migration, and invasion of MH7A cells and ameliorated the severity of rat CIA via inhibiting Shh signaling.

Adipose Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes Promote the Regeneration of Corneal Endothelium Through Ameliorating Senescence

Purpose

Human corneal endothelial cells (hCECs) have been considered unable to regenerate in vivo, resulting in corneal decompensation after significant loss of hCECs. adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cell (ASC)-derived exosomes can regenerate tissues and organs. In this study, we investigated whether ASC-derived exosomes could protect and regenerate CECs.

Methods

We performed cell viability and cell-cycle analyses to evaluate the effect of ASC-derived exosomes on the regeneration capacity of cultured hCECs. Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) were used to induce biological stress in CECs. The effect of ASC-derived exosomes on CECs was investigated in vivo. ASC-derived exosomes were introduced into rat CECs using electroporation, and rat corneas were injured using cryoinjury. Next-generation sequencing analysis was performed to compare the differentially expressed microRNAs (miRNAs) between ASC-derived and hCEC-derived exosomes.

Results

ASC-derived exosomes induced CEC proliferation and suppressed TGF-β- or H2O2-induced oxidative stress and senescence. ASC-derived exosomes protect hCECs against TGF-β- or H2O2-induced endothelial-mesenchymal transition and mitophagy. In an in vivo study, ASC-derived exosomes promoted wound healing of rat CECs and protected the corneal endothelium against cryoinjury-induced corneal endothelium damage. Next-generation sequencing analysis revealed differentially expressed miRNAs for ASC-derived and hCEC-derived exosomes. They are involved in lysine degradation, adherens junction, the TGF-β signaling pathway, the p53 signaling pathway, the Hippo signaling pathway, the forkhead box O (FoxO) signaling pathway, regulation of actin cytoskeleton, and RNA degradation based on Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis.

Conclusions

ASC-derived exosomes promoted wound healing and regeneration of endothelial cells by inducing a shift in the cell cycle and suppressing senescence and autophagy.

Altered MicroRNA Maturation in Ischemic Hearts: Implication of Hypoxia on XPO5 and DICER1 Dysregulation and RedoximiR State

Ischemic cardiomyopathy (ICM) is associated with abnormal microRNA expression levels that involve an altered gene expression profile. However, little is known about the underlying causes of microRNA disruption in ICM and whether microRNA maturation is compromised. Therefore, we focused on microRNA maturation defects analysis and the implication of the microRNA biogenesis pathway and redox-sensitive microRNAs (redoximiRs). Transcriptomic changes were investigated via ncRNA-seq (ICM, n = 22; controls, n = 8) and mRNA-seq (ICM, n = 13; control, n = 10). The effect of hypoxia on the biogenesis of microRNAs was evaluated in the AC16 cell line. ICM patients showed a reduction in microRNA maturation compared to control (4.30 ± 0.94 au vs. 5.34 ± 1.07 au, p ˂ 0.05), accompanied by a deregulation of the microRNA biogenesis pathway: a decrease in pre-microRNA export (XPO5, FC = -1.38, p ˂ 0.05) and cytoplasmic processing (DICER, FC = -1.32, p ˂ 0.01). Both processes were regulated by hypoxia in AC16 cells (XPO5, FC = -1.65; DICER1, FC = -1.55; p ˂ 0.01; Exportin-5, FC = -1.81; Dicer, FC = -1.15; p ˂ 0.05). Patients displayed deregulation of several redoximiRs, highlighting miR-122-5p (FC = -2.41, p ˂ 0.001), which maintained a good correlation with the ejection fraction (r = 0.681, p ˂ 0.01). We evidenced a decrease in microRNA maturation mainly linked to a decrease in XPO5-mediated pre-microRNA export and DICER1-mediated processing, together with a general effect of hypoxia through deregulation of biogenesis pathway and the redoximiRs.

Enhancer variants on chromosome 2p14 regulating SPRED2 and ACTR2 act as a signal amplifier to protect against rheumatoid arthritis

Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have repeatedly reported multiple non-coding single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at 2p14 associated with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), but their functional roles in the pathological mechanisms of RA remain to be explored. In this study, we integrated a series of bioinformatics and functional experiments and identified three intronic RA SNPs (rs1876518, rs268131, and rs2576923) within active enhancers that can regulate the expression of SPRED2 directly. At the same time, SPRED2 and ACTR2 influence each other as a positive feedback signal amplifier to strengthen the protective role in RA by inhibiting the migration and invasion of rheumatoid fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs). In particular, the transcription factor CEBPB preferentially binds to the rs1876518-T allele to increase the expression of SPRED2 in FLSs. Our findings decipher the molecular mechanisms behind the GWAS signals at 2p14 for RA and emphasize SPRED2 as a potential candidate gene for RA, providing a potential target and direction for precise treatment of RA.

Hypoxia Inhibits Osteogenesis and Promotes Adipogenesis of Fibroblast-like Synoviocytes via Upregulation of Leptin in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis

Hypoxia is associated with the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). RA fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) are able to differentiate into osteoblasts and adipocytes. In this study, we aimed to investigate the role of hypoxia in the osteogenesis or adipogenesis of RA-FLSs. Bioinformatics analysis was performed to profile gene expression in the datasets of GSE21959, GSE32006, and GSE55875, and flow cytometry was performed for FLS characterization, while Alizarin Redand Oil Red O staining for osteogenic or adipogenic differentiation of FLSs, respectively. RNA interference leptin knockdown was used to determine the role of leptin in the osteogenesis and adipogenesis of RA-FLSs, and the expression of osteogenic and adipogenic markers was quantified by RT-qPCR and Western blotting. FLSs exhibited a mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-like phenotype and we observed a limited self-renewal capacity in RA-FLSs compared to that in MSCs, but it was still greater than osteoarthritis (OA)-FLSs. Hypoxia did not change the RA-FLS MSC-like phenotype but inhibited the osteogenic differentiation and promoted the adipogenic differentiation of RA-FLSs. From the bioinformatics analysis ofGSE21959, GSE32006, and GSE55875 datasets, we found leptin, the only perturbed hypoxia-mediated upregulated gene across the three profiled datasets. Leptin knockdown in RA-FLSs reversed the hypoxia-mediated reduction of osteogenesis and hypoxia-mediated enhancement of adipogenesis by elevated expression of osteogenic markers and reduced expression of adipogenic markers, respectively. Therefore, hypoxia-leptin regulation of the osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation of RA-FLSs advances our understanding of RA pathogenesis, meanwhile also provides opportunities for future therapeutic intervention of RA.

Rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes maintain tumor-like biological characteristics through ciRS-7-dependent regulation of miR-7

BACKGROUND

Altered phenotype of Fibroblast-like synoviocyte(FLS) is an important cause of the pathogenesis and progression of rheumatoid arthritis(RA), but the specific mechanism causing this change has not yet been fully explained. The exact mechanism by which the biological properties of FLS change in RA is still unclear. microRNAs (miRNAs) have been shown to affect changes in the biological properties of RA-FLS, but the critical miRNAs remain to be discovered. Thus, we first used miRNA microarray and WGCNA to confirm the RA-FLS miRNA landscape and establish their biological functions via network analyses at the system level, as well as to provide a platform for modulating the overall phenotypic effects of RA-FLS.

METHODS

We enrolled a total of 3 patients with RA and 3 healthy participants, constructed a network analysis of via miRNA microarray and RNA-sequencing. Furthermore, the coexpression analyses of miR-7 and ciRS-7 were verified by siRNA transfection, overexpression and qPCR analyses. Finally, we evaluated the effects of adjusting the expression levels of miR-7 and ciRS-7 on RA-FLS, respectively.

RESULTS

We identified distinct miRNA features in RA-FLS, including miR-7, which was significantly lower expressed. Furthermore, we discovered the negative regulatory relationship between ciRS-7 and miR-7 in RA-FLS. Finally, we overexpressed miR-7 in RA-FLS and discovered that miR-7 inhibited RA-FLS hyperproliferation, migration, invasion, and apoptosis, whereas ciRS-7 overexpression reversed these effects.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that the dysregulation of miR-7 in FLS may be involved in the pathological processes of RA and that ciRS-7 induced the suppression of tumor-like biological characters of RA-FLS via modulation of miR-7. These findings help us understand the essential roles of a regulatory interaction between ciRS-7 and miR-7 mediating disease activity of RA, and will facilitate to develop potential intervention target for RA.

BNIP3 mediates the different adaptive responses of fibroblast-like synovial cells to hypoxia in patients with osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis

Background

Hypoxia is one of the important characteristics of synovial microenvironment in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and plays an important role in synovial hyperplasia. In terms of cell survival, fibroblast-like synovial cells (FLSs) are relatively affected by hypoxia. In contrast, fibroblast-like synovial cells from patients with RA (RA-FLSs) are particularly resistant to hypoxia-induced cell death. The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether fibroblast-like synovial cells in patients with osteoarthritis (OA-FLSs) and RA-FLSs have the same adaptation to hypoxia.

Methods

CCK-8, flow cytometry and BrdU were used to detect the proliferation of OA-FLSs and RA-FLSs under different oxygen concentrations. Apoptosis was detected by AV/PI, TUNEL and Western blot, mitophagy was observed by electron microscope, laser confocal microscope and Western blot, the state of mitochondria was detected by ROS and mitochondrial membrane potential by flow cytometry, BNIP3 and HIF-1α were detected by Western blot and RT-qPCR. The silencing of BNIP3 was achieved by stealth RNA system technology.

Results

After hypoxia, the survival rate of OA-FLSs decreased, while the proliferation activity of RA-FLSs further increased. Hypoxia induced an increase in apoptosis and inhibition of mitophagy in OA-FLSs, but not in RA-FLSs. Hypoxia led to a more lasting adaptive response. RA-FLSs displayed a more significant increase in the expression of genes transcriptionally regulated by HIF-1α. Interestingly, they showed higher BNIP3 expression than OA-FLSs, and showed stronger mitophagy and proliferation activities. BNIP3 siRNA experiment confirmed the potential role of BNIP3 in the survival of RA-FLSs. Inhibition of BNIP3 resulted in the decrease of cell proliferation, mitophagy and the increase of apoptosis.

Conclusion

In summary, RA-FLSs maintained intracellular redox balance through mitophagy to promote cell survival under hypoxia. The mitophagy of OA-FLSs was too little to maintain the redox balance of mitochondria, resulting in apoptosis. The difference of mitophagy between OA-FLSs and RA-FLSs under hypoxia is mediated by the level of BNIP3 expression.

The ROS/GRK2/HIF-1α/NLRP3 Pathway Mediates Pyroptosis of Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes and the Regulation of Monomer Derivatives of Paeoniflorin

Hypoxia is an important factor in the development of synovitis in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The previous study of the research group found that monomeric derivatives of paeoniflorin (MDP) can alleviate joint inflammation in adjuvant-induced arthritis (AA) rats by inhibiting macrophage pyroptosis. This study revealed increased levels of hypoxia-inducible factor- (HIF-) 1α and N-terminal p30 fragment of GSDMD (GSDMD-N) in fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) of RA patients and AA rats, while MDP significantly inhibited their expression. Subsequently, FLS were exposed to a hypoxic environment or treated with cobalt ion in vitro. Western blot and immunofluorescence analysis showed increased expression of G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2), HIF-1α, nucleotide-binding oligomerization segment-like receptor family 3 (NLRP3), ASC, caspase-1, cleaved-caspase-1, and GSDMD-N. Electron microscopy revealed FLS pyroptosis after exposure in hypoxia. Next, corresponding shRNAs were transferred into FLS to knock down hypoxia-inducible factor- (HIF-) 1α, and in turn, NLRP3 and western blot results confirmed the same. The enhanced level of GSDMD was reversed under hypoxia by inhibiting NLRP3 expression. Knockdown and overexpression of GRK2 in FLS revealed GRK2 to be a positive regulator of HIF-1α. Levels of GRK2 and HIF-1α were inhibited by eliminating excess reactive oxygen species (ROS). Furthermore, MDP reduced FLS pyroptosis through targeted inhibition of GRK2 phosphorylation. According to these findings, hypoxia induces FLS pyroptosis through the ROS/GRK2/HIF-1α/NLRP3 pathway, while MDP regulates this pathway to reduce FLS pyroptosis.

miR-496/MMP10 Is Involved in the Proliferation of IL-1β-Induced Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes Via Mediating the NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a common chronic autoimmune disease featured by synovial inflammation. miR-496 is closely involved in various pathologic conditions. However, its role in RA has not yet been elucidated. Expression of miR-496 and MMP10 was determined based on the clinical samples with RA retrieved from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) datasets. In vitro model of RA was constructed in MH7A cells stimulated by IL-1β (10 ng/mL). Cell counting kit 8 (CCK-8) and flow cytometry experiments were implemented to investigate the cell viability and apoptosis rate of MH7A cells. TargetScan was applied to identify the targets of miR-496, and the regulation of miR-496 on MMP10 expression was validated by a dual-luciferase reporter gene assay. qRT-PCR and western blot analyses were conducted to examine the expression. miR-496 expression was decreased in RA tissues and MH7A cells after IL-1β treatment. Overexpression of miR-496 significantly inhibited IL-1β-treated MH7A cell viability. MMP10 was identified as a target of miR-496 and its expression was negatively regulated by miR-496. The effects of miR-496 on MH7A cell proliferation and apoptosis were reversed by MMP10. The activity of NF-κB pathway was associated with the miR-496/MMP10 axis in IL-1β-stimulated MH7A cells. To summarize, this study demonstrated that miR-496 can impair the proliferative ability and facilitate the apoptosis of IL-1β-treated MH7A through regulating MMP10 expression and NF-κB signaling pathway.

Promising Therapeutic Targets for Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic poly-articular chronic autoimmune joint disease that mainly damages the hands and feet, which affects 0.5% to 1.0% of the population worldwide. With the sustained development of disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), significant success has been achieved for preventing and relieving disease activity in RA patients. Unfortunately, some patients still show limited response to DMARDs, which puts forward new requirements for special targets and novel therapies. Understanding the pathogenetic roles of the various molecules in RA could facilitate discovery of potential therapeutic targets and approaches. In this review, both existing and emerging targets, including the proteins, small molecular metabolites, and epigenetic regulators related to RA, are discussed, with a focus on the mechanisms that result in inflammation and the development of new drugs for blocking the various modulators in RA.

Properties and molecular mechanisms underlying geniposide-mediated therapeutic effects in chronic inflammatory diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Geniposide (GE) is ubiquitous in nearly 40 species of plants, among which Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis has the highest content, and has been used ethnopharmacologically to treat chronic inflammatory diseases. As a traditional Chinese medicine, Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis has a long history of usage in detumescence and sedation, liver protection and cholestasis, hypotension and hemostasis. It is commonly used in the treatment of diabetes, hypertension, jaundice hepatitis, sprain and contusion. As a type of iridoid glycosides extracted from Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis, GE has many pharmacological effects, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenesic, anti-oxidative, etc. AIM OF THE REVIEW: In this article, we reviewed the sources, traditional usage, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and therapeutic effect of GE on chronic inflammatory diseases, and discussed its potential regulatory mechanisms and clinical application.

RESULTS

GE is a common iridoid glycoside in medicinal plants, which has strong activity in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases. A large number of in vivo and in vitro experiments confirmed that GE has certain therapeutic value for a variety of chronic inflammation disease. Its mechanism of function is mainly based on its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, neuroprotective properties, as well as regulation of apoptotsis. GE plays a role in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases by regulating cell proliferation and apoptosis, realizing the dynamic balance of pro/anti-inflammatory factors, improving the state of oxidative stress, and restoring abnormally expressed inflammation-related pathways.

CONCLUSION

According to its extensive pharmacological effects, GE is a promising drug for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases.

The Expression of Non-Coding RNAs and Their Target Molecules in Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Molecular Basis for Rheumatoid Pathogenesis and Its Potential Clinical Applications

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a typical autoimmune-mediated rheumatic disease presenting as a chronic synovitis in the joint. The chronic synovial inflammation is characterized by hyper-vascularity and extravasation of various immune-related cells to form lymphoid aggregates where an intimate cross-talk among innate and adaptive immune cells takes place. These interactions facilitate production of abundant proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines and growth factors for the proliferation/maturation/differentiation of B lymphocytes to become plasma cells. Finally, the autoantibodies against denatured immunoglobulin G (rheumatoid factors), EB virus nuclear antigens (EBNAs) and citrullinated protein (ACPAs) are produced to trigger the development of RA. Furthermore, it is documented that gene mutations, abnormal epigenetic regulation of peptidylarginine deiminase genes 2 and 4 (PADI2 and PADI4), and thereby the induced autoantibodies against PAD2 and PAD4 are implicated in ACPA production in RA patients. The aberrant expressions of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) including microRNAs (miRs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in the immune system undoubtedly derange the mRNA expressions of cytokines/chemokines/growth factors. In the present review, we will discuss in detail the expression of these ncRNAs and their target molecules participating in developing RA, and the potential biomarkers for the disease, its diagnosis, cardiovascular complications and therapeutic response. Finally, we propose some prospective investigations for unraveling the conundrums of rheumatoid pathogenesis.

Cyclic mechanical stimulation inhibits rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes proliferation via cell cycle arrest

The imbalance between proliferation and apoptosis of fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) has been the main cause of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) synovial hyperplasia. Our previous study confirmed that the cyclic mechanical stimulation (CMS) inhibited the proliferation of RA FLSs, but the underlying mechanisms are still unclear. This study aimed to investigate these underlying mechanisms. The in vitro cultured human RA FLSs were subjected to CMS (6%, 1.0 Hz). Cell cycle was detected by flow cytometry. The expression of cyclin D1, cyclin E1, CDK-2 and p27 was detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). MTS assay was used to detect cell viability. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) levels in RA FLSs were detected by western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. The results showed that CMS significantly inhibited the cell cycle transformation of RA FLSs from G1 phase to S phase, which significantly decreased the cell proliferation index. Meanwhile, both cyclin E1 and CDK-2 gene expressions were significantly decreased, p27 gene expression was increased, and no significant change was observed in the expression of cyclin D1. The inhibition of COX-2/PGE₂ pathway in RA FLSs by celecoxib treatment showed no effect on the inhibition of RA FLSs proliferation by CMS. In conclusion, CMS inhibited the proliferation of RA FLSs by modulating the expression of cell cycle-related molecules such as cyclin E1, CDK2 and p27 to arrest cell cycle transformation, which is independent of COX-2/PGE₂ signaling pathway.

MicroRNA-191-5p ameliorates amyloid-β1-40 -mediated retinal pigment epithelium cell injury by suppressing the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway

Amyloid β (Aβ) is a crucial component of drusen, the hallmark of the early stage of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), and can cause retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cell damage through activation of the inflammatory response. MicroRNAs play a critical role in inflammation. However, the mechanism underlying the effect of microRNAs on the NLRP3 inflammasome induced by Aβ remains poorly understood. In the present study, we demonstrated that Aβ_1-40 -mediated RPE damage by inducing a decrease in endogenous miR-191-5p expression. This led to the upregulation of its target gene, C/EBPβ. C/EBPβ acts as a transcription factor for NLRP3, promotes its transcription, and upregulates the downstream inflammatory factors Caspase-1 and IL-1β. Correspondingly, overexpression of miR-191-5p alleviated RPE cell injury by suppressing inflammation. The present study elucidates a novel transcriptional regulatory mechanism of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Our findings suggest an anti-inflammatory effect of miR-191-5p in Aβ_1-40 -induced RPE impairment, shedding light on novel preventive or therapeutic approaches for AMD-associated RPE impairment.

The Transcription Factor C/EBPβ Promotes HFL-1 Cell Migration, Proliferation, and Inflammation by Activating lncRNA HAS2-AS1 in Hypoxia

Objective

Recent studies were widely concerned about the role of lncRNAs in hypoxic pulmonary hypertension (HPH). HAS2 was found significantly highly expressed in HPH, but the antisense of HAS2 (HAS2-AS1) has not been explored in HPH, providing a new potential therapeutic target of HPH.

Methods

In this study, human fetal lung fibroblast-1 (HFL-1) cells were cultured under hypoxia conditions to stimulate the pathological process of HPH. Transwell and wound-healing assays were used to detect HFL-1 cell migration, and CCK 8 assay was used to detect cell proliferation. The upstream transcription factor of HAS2-AS1 was predicted by JASPAR website, and the binding site between C/EBPβ and HAS2-AS1 was predicted by JASPAR, too. In order to verify the association between C/EBPβ and the HAS2 promoter region, we used chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and dual luciferase reporter gene detection, western blot to detect the expression of inflammation-related proteins, and qRT-PCR to detect the expression of HAS2-AS1 and HAS2. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) with HPH patient microarray data was downloaded from the GEO database and analyzed by R software.

Results

Our study showed that HAS2-AS1 and C/EBPβ were highly expressed in hypoxic HFL-1 cells, and the knockdown of HAS2-AS1 expression could inhibit the proliferation, migration, and inflammatory response of HFL-1 cells. C/EBPβ binds to the promoter region of HAS2-AS1 and has a positive regulation effect on the transcription of HAS2-AS1. Furthermore, C/EBPβ can regulate the proliferation, migration, and inflammatory response of HFL-1 cells through HAS2-AS1.

Conclusion

This study suggested that C/EBPβ could upregulate HAS2-AS1 expression and induce HFL-1 cell proliferation, migration, and inflammation response.

Resveratrol promotes apoptosis and G2/M cell cycle arrest of fibroblast-like synoviocytes in rheumatoid arthritis through regulation of autophagy and the serine-threonine kinase-p53 axis

Introduction

Resveratrol, a polyphenol extracted from many plant species, has emerged as a promising pro-apoptotic agent in various cancer cells. However, the role of resveratrol in cell proliferation and apoptosis of fibroblast-like synoviocytes in rheumatoid arthritis (RA-FLS) is not fully understood. The study was aimed at elucidating the role of resveratrol in cell proliferation and apoptosis of RA-FLS and the underlying molecular mechanism.

Material and methods

Cultured RA-FLSs were subjected to tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α). The cell proliferation was measured by Cell Counting Kit-8 assay. Cell apoptosis and cell cycle of RA-FLSs were determined by flow cytometry. The levels of apoptosis or autophagy or cell cycle-related protein were detected by immunoblot analysis.

Results

In our study, we confirmed that resveratrol reversed TNF-α mediated cell proliferation in RA-FLS. Meanwhile, resveratrol blocked cells at the G2/M stage and reduced the ratio of S phase cells through upregulation of p53 and consequently led to apoptotic cell death. Quite interestingly, we found that resveratrol reversed TNF-α-induced autophagy. Inhibition of autophagy by resveratrol or autophagy inhibitor or Beclin-1 siRNA suppressed TNF-α mediated cell survival and promoted cell apoptosis. However, the autophagy inducer rapamycin (RAPA) reversed the effect of resveratrol on autophagy and cell proliferation. Mechanistic studies revealed that resveratrol inhibited the activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinases/serine-threonine kinase (PI3K/AKT) pathway. Inhibition of PI3K/AKT pathway by inhibitor LY294002 or resveratrol increased the expression of p53 and decreased the expression of cycle protein (cyclin B1), which further led to block cells in the G2/M arrest.

Conclusions

Our preliminary study indicated that resveratrol may suppress RA-FLS cell survival and promote apoptosis at least partly through regulation of autophagy and the AKT-p53 axis.

miR-483-3p promotes cell proliferation and suppresses apoptosis in rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes by targeting IGF-1

Accumulating evidence suggests that miR-483-3p is implicated in maintaining biological properties in human cancers. However, its biological roles in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) remain unknown. miR-483-3p levels in synovial tissue samples and fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) were determined using quantitative real-time PCR. The CCK-8 assay and EdU staining were performed to assess cell proliferation in RA FLSs after transfection with miR-483-3p mimics or inhibitor. Flow cytometry with Annexin V-FITC staining or PI staining was performed to assess apoptosis or cell cycle progression in RA FLSs, respectively. miR-483-3p was upregulated in RA, which markedly promoted cell proliferation, induced the G0/G1-to-S phase transition, and suppressed apoptosis in RA FLSs, whereas miR-483-3p silencing yielded opposite results. Moreover, insulin growth factor 1 (IGF-1) was detected as a direct miR-483-3p target. IGF-1 silencing partially restored cell proliferation, the G0/G1-to-S phase transition, and apoptosis suppression in RA FLSs via miR-483-3p inhibition. Our results showed that miR-483-3p promotes RA FLSs proliferation by targeting IGF-1, suggesting a potential strategy for diagnostic and treatment strategy for RA.

Exosomal MicroRNA-320a Derived From Mesenchymal Stem Cells Regulates Rheumatoid Arthritis Fibroblast-Like Synoviocyte Activation by Suppressing CXCL9 Expression

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), a chronic systemic inflammatory disease, is a primary cause of disability worldwide. The involvement of fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) in the regulation of the pathogenesis of RA has been highlighted. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are important candidates for cell-based treatment in many inflammatory autoimmune diseases. Herein, we identify whether MSC-derived exosomes loaded with microRNA-320a (miR-320a) regulate RA-FLSs. Synovial tissues from 22 patients with RA and 9 patients with osteoarthritis were collected. RA-FLSs were obtained from patients with RA, and their functions were evaluated by determining levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and IL-8 and by transwell migration and invasion assays. Dual luciferase reporter gene assays were employed to identify interaction between miR-320a and CXC chemokine ligand 9 (CXCL9). A co-culture system of MSC-derived exosomes and RA-FLSs were performed. The collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse models with arthritis and bone damage were developed. Our results revealed the existence of reciprocal expression of miR-320a and CXCL9 in the synovial tissues obtained from patients with RA. CXCL9 knockdown or miR-320a upregulation suppressed the activation, migration, and invasion of RA-FLSs. CXCL9 was confirmed to be a target of miR-320a, and CXCL9 overexpression restored RA-FLS function in the presence of miR-320a. MSC-derived exosomes containing miR-320a mimic significantly suppressed RA-FLS activation, migration, and invasion in vitro and attenuated arthritis and bone damage in mice with CIA in vivo. Our study uncovers that MSC-derived exosomes participate in the intercellular transfer of miR-320a and subsequently inhibit the progression of RA. These results provide a novel potential therapeutic approach for RA treatment by increasing miR-320a in exosomes.

CCAAT/Enhancer-Binding Protein β Mediates Oxygen-Induced Retinal Neovascularization via Retinal Vascular Damage and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the role of CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein β (C/EBP β (C/EBP.

METHODS

Rats with OIR were exposed to alternating hypoxic and hyperopic conditions for 14 days. Then, the rats with OIR were assigned randomly to groups that received intravitreal injections of either shRNA lentiviral particles targeting C/EBP β (C/EBP β (C/EBP β (C/EBP β (C/EBP β (C/EBP β (C/EBP.

RESULTS

In OIR rats, the expression levels of C/EBP β (C/EBP P < 0.01). The p-C/EBP β (C/EBP β (C/EBP β (C/EBP β (C/EBP β (C/EBP P < 0.01). The p-C/EBP β (C/EBP β (C/EBP β (C/EBP P < 0.01). The p-C/EBP.

CONCLUSIONS

C/EBP β shRNA inhibits RNV in OIR. A potential mechanism may be that the activity of C/EBP β increases with its overexpression, which in turn aggravates the amount of the retinal vascular damage and promotes transcription of VEGF. C/EBP β might be a new therapeutic target for preventing RNV.β (C/EBP β (C/EBP β (C/EBP.

Recent findings regarding the effects of microRNAs on fibroblast-like synovial cells in rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease with severe joint inflammation and destruction characterized by marked hyperplasia of the lining layer of the synovium. Fibroblast-like synovial cells (FLS) is a key cellular component within the synovia; it plays pivotal roles in RA pathogenesis by unfavorable behaviors such as producing inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and hyperproliferation. MicroRNAs are evolutionarily conserved small non-coding RNAs (length is 18-25 nucleotides) that regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. There is increasing interest in the involvement of microRNAs in autoimmune diseases including RA. Recent studies revealed the regulation of the function of FLS by microRNAs. Here, we review the known functional microRNAs in RA and summarize the potential uses of these small molecules in the treatment of RA.