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Long TZ, Jiang DJ, Shi SH, Deng YC, Wang WX, Cao DS. Enhancing Multi-species Liver Microsomal Stability Prediction through Artificial Intelligence. J Chem Inf Model 2024; 64:3222-3236. [PMID: 38498003 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.4c00159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
Liver microsomal stability, a crucial aspect of metabolic stability, significantly impacts practical drug discovery. However, current models for predicting liver microsomal stability are based on limited molecular information from a single species. To address this limitation, we constructed the largest public database of compounds from three common species: human, rat, and mouse. Subsequently, we developed a series of classification models using both traditional descriptor-based and classic graph-based machine learning (ML) algorithms. Remarkably, the best-performing models for the three species achieved Matthews correlation coefficients (MCCs) of 0.616, 0.603, and 0.574, respectively, on the test set. Furthermore, through the construction of consensus models based on these individual models, we have demonstrated their superior predictive performance in comparison with the existing models of the same type. To explore the similarities and differences in the properties of liver microsomal stability among multispecies molecules, we conducted preliminary interpretative explorations using the Shapley additive explanations (SHAP) and atom heatmap approaches for the models and misclassified molecules. Additionally, we further investigated representative structural modifications and substructures that decrease the liver microsomal stability in different species using the matched molecule pair analysis (MMPA) method and substructure extraction techniques. The established prediction models, along with insightful interpretation information regarding liver microsomal stability, will significantly contribute to enhancing the efficiency of exploring practical drugs for development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teng-Zhi Long
- Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, P. R. China
| | - De-Jun Jiang
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Shao-Hua Shi
- Advancing Translational Medicine in Bone and Joint Diseases, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, P. R. China
| | - You-Chao Deng
- Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, P. R. China
| | - Wen-Xuan Wang
- Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, P. R. China
| | - Dong-Sheng Cao
- Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, P. R. China
- Advancing Translational Medicine in Bone and Joint Diseases, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, P. R. China
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, Hunan, P. R. China
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2
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Wang T, Li Z, Zhuo L, Chen Y, Fu X, Zou Q. MS-BACL: enhancing metabolic stability prediction through bond graph augmentation and contrastive learning. Brief Bioinform 2024; 25:bbae127. [PMID: 38555479 PMCID: PMC10981768 DOI: 10.1093/bib/bbae127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024] Open
Abstract
MOTIVATION Accurately predicting molecular metabolic stability is of great significance to drug research and development, ensuring drug safety and effectiveness. Existing deep learning methods, especially graph neural networks, can reveal the molecular structure of drugs and thus efficiently predict the metabolic stability of molecules. However, most of these methods focus on the message passing between adjacent atoms in the molecular graph, ignoring the relationship between bonds. This makes it difficult for these methods to estimate accurate molecular representations, thereby being limited in molecular metabolic stability prediction tasks. RESULTS We propose the MS-BACL model based on bond graph augmentation technology and contrastive learning strategy, which can efficiently and reliably predict the metabolic stability of molecules. To our knowledge, this is the first time that bond-to-bond relationships in molecular graph structures have been considered in the task of metabolic stability prediction. We build a bond graph based on 'atom-bond-atom', and the model can simultaneously capture the information of atoms and bonds during the message propagation process. This enhances the model's ability to reveal the internal structure of the molecule, thereby improving the structural representation of the molecule. Furthermore, we perform contrastive learning training based on the molecular graph and its bond graph to learn the final molecular representation. Multiple sets of experimental results on public datasets show that the proposed MS-BACL model outperforms the state-of-the-art model. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION The code and data are publicly available at https://github.com/taowang11/MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Wang
- School of Data Science and Artificial Intelligence, Wenzhou University of Technology, 325000, Wenzhou, China
| | - Zhen Li
- Institute of Computational Science and Technology, Guangzhou University, 510006, Guangzhou, China
| | - Linlin Zhuo
- School of Data Science and Artificial Intelligence, Wenzhou University of Technology, 325000, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yifan Chen
- College of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, Hunan University, 410012, Changsha, China
| | - Xiangzheng Fu
- College of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, Hunan University, 410012, Changsha, China
| | - Quan Zou
- Institute of Fundamental and Frontier Sciences, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, 611730, Chengdu, China
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3
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Siramshetty VB, Xu X, Shah P. Artificial Intelligence in ADME Property Prediction. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2714:307-327. [PMID: 37676606 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3441-7_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion (ADME) are key properties of a small molecule that govern pharmacokinetic profiles and impact its efficacy and safety. Computational methods such as machine learning and artificial intelligence have gained significant interest in both academic and industrial settings to predict pharmacokinetic properties of small molecules. These methods are applied in drug discovery to optimize chemical libraries, prioritize hits from biological screens, and optimize ADME properties of lead molecules. In the recent years, the drug discovery community witnessed the use of a range of neural network architectures such as deep neural networks, recurrent neural networks, graph neural networks, and transformer neural networks, which marked a paradigm shift in computer-aided drug design and development. This chapter discusses recent developments with an emphasis on their application to predict ADME properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishal B Siramshetty
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, Rockville, MD, USA
- Department of Safety Assessment, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Xin Xu
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Pranav Shah
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, Rockville, MD, USA.
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Shah P, Padilha EC, Kato R, Siramshetty VB, Huang W, Xu X. Consideration of vendor-related differences in hepatic metabolic stability data to optimize early ADME screening in drug discovery. SLAS DISCOVERY : ADVANCING LIFE SCIENCES R & D 2024; 29:34-39. [PMID: 37573009 PMCID: PMC10840824 DOI: 10.1016/j.slasd.2023.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/14/2023]
Abstract
Hepatic metabolic stability is a crucial determinant of oral bioavailability and plasma concentrations of a compound, and its measurement is important in early drug discovery. Preliminary metabolic stability estimations are commonly performed in liver microsomal fractions. At the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, a single-point assay in rat liver microsomes (RLM) is employed for initial stability assessment (Tier I) and a multi-point detailed stability assay is employed as a Tier II assay for promising compounds. Although the in vitro and in vivo metabolic stability of compounds typically exhibit good correlation, conflicting results may arise in certain cases. While investigating one such instance, we serendipitously found vendor-related RLM differences in metabolic stability and metabolite formation, which had implications for in vitro and in vivo correlations. In this study, we highlight the importance of considering vendor differences in hepatic metabolic stability data and discuss strategies to avoid these pitfalls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pranav Shah
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850, United States.
| | - Elias C Padilha
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850, United States
| | - Rintaro Kato
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850, United States
| | - Vishal B Siramshetty
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850, United States; Department of Safety Assessment, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, United States
| | - Wenwei Huang
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850, United States
| | - Xin Xu
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850, United States
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5
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Kato R, Zeng W, Siramshetty VB, Williams J, Kabir M, Hagen N, Padilha EC, Wang AQ, Mathé EA, Xu X, Shah P. Development and validation of PAMPA-BBB QSAR model to predict brain penetration potential of novel drug candidates. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1291246. [PMID: 38108064 PMCID: PMC10722238 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1291246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Efficiently circumventing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) poses a major hurdle in the development of drugs that target the central nervous system. Although there are several methods to determine BBB permeability of small molecules, the Parallel Artificial Membrane Permeability Assay (PAMPA) is one of the most common assays in drug discovery due to its robust and high-throughput nature. Drug discovery is a long and costly venture, thus, any advances to streamline this process are beneficial. In this study, ∼2,000 compounds from over 60 NCATS projects were screened in the PAMPA-BBB assay to develop a quantitative structure-activity relationship model to predict BBB permeability of small molecules. After analyzing both state-of-the-art and latest machine learning methods, we found that random forest based on RDKit descriptors as additional features provided the best training balanced accuracy (0.70 ± 0.015) and a message-passing variant of graph convolutional neural network that uses RDKit descriptors provided the highest balanced accuracy (0.72) on a prospective validation set. Finally, we correlated in vitro PAMPA-BBB data with in vivo brain permeation data in rodents to observe a categorical correlation of 77%, suggesting that models developed using data from PAMPA-BBB can forecast in vivo brain permeability. Given that majority of prior research has relied on in vitro or in vivo data for assessing BBB permeability, our model, developed using the largest PAMPA-BBB dataset to date, offers an orthogonal means to estimate BBB permeability of small molecules. We deposited a subset of our data into PubChem bioassay database (AID: 1845228) and deployed the best performing model on the NCATS Open Data ADME portal (https://opendata.ncats.nih.gov/adme/). These initiatives were undertaken with the aim of providing valuable resources for the drug discovery community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rintaro Kato
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Wenyu Zeng
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Vishal B. Siramshetty
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Jordan Williams
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Md Kabir
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Natalie Hagen
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Elias C. Padilha
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Amy Q. Wang
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Ewy A. Mathé
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Xin Xu
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Pranav Shah
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, United States
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Padilha EC, Yang M, Shah P, Wang AQ, Duan J, Park JK, Zawatsky CN, Malicdan MCV, Kunos G, Iyer MR, Gaucher G, Ravenelle F, Cinar R, Xu X. In vitro and in vivo pharmacokinetic characterization, chiral conversion and PBPK scaling towards human PK simulation of S-MRI-1867, a drug candidate for Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome pulmonary fibrosis. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 168:115178. [PMID: 37890204 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder that affects lysosome-related organelles, often leading to fatal pulmonary fibrosis (PF). The search for a treatment for HPS pulmonary fibrosis (HPSPF) is ongoing. S-MRI-1867, a dual cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1R)/inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) inhibitor, has shown great promise for the treatment of several fibrotic diseases, including HPSPF. In this study, we investigated the in vitro ADME characteristics of S-MRI-1867, as well as its pharmacokinetic (PK) properties in mice, rats, dogs, and monkeys. S-MRI-1867 showed low aqueous solubility (< 1 µg/mL), high plasma protein binding (>99%), and moderate to high metabolic stability. In its preclinical PK studies, S-MRI-1867 exhibited moderate to low plasma clearance (CLp) and high steady-state volume of distribution (Vdss) across all species. Despite the low solubility and P-gp efflux, S-MRI-1867 showed great permeability and metabolic stability leading to a moderate bioavailability (21-60%) across mouse, rat, dog, and monkey. Since the R form of MRI-1867 is CB1R-inactive, we investigated the potential conversion of S-MRI-1867 to R-MRI-1867 in mice and found that the chiral conversion was negligible. Furthermore, we developed and validated a PBPK model that adequately fits the PK profiles of S-MRI-1867 in mice, rats, dogs, and monkeys using various dosing regimens. We employed this PBPK model to simulate the human PK profiles of S-MRI-1867, enabling us to inform human dose selection and support the advancement of this promising drug candidate in the treatment of HPSPF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elias C Padilha
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Core, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, Rockville, MD, USA.
| | - Mengbi Yang
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Core, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Pranav Shah
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Core, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Amy Q Wang
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Core, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, Rockville, MD, USA
| | | | - Joshua K Park
- Laboratory of Physiologic Studies, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institute of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Charles N Zawatsky
- Laboratory of Physiologic Studies, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institute of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - May Christine V Malicdan
- NIH Undiagnosed Diseases Program, UDP Translational Laboratory, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - George Kunos
- Laboratory of Physiologic Studies, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institute of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Malliga R Iyer
- Section on Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, 5625 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
| | | | | | - Resat Cinar
- Section on Fibrotic Disorders, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institute of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Xin Xu
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Core, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, Rockville, MD, USA.
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7
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Du BX, Long Y, Li X, Wu M, Shi JY. CMMS-GCL: cross-modality metabolic stability prediction with graph contrastive learning. Bioinformatics 2023; 39:btad503. [PMID: 37572298 PMCID: PMC10457661 DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btad503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/14/2023] Open
Abstract
MOTIVATION Metabolic stability plays a crucial role in the early stages of drug discovery and development. Accurately modeling and predicting molecular metabolic stability has great potential for the efficient screening of drug candidates as well as the optimization of lead compounds. Considering wet-lab experiment is time-consuming, laborious, and expensive, in silico prediction of metabolic stability is an alternative choice. However, few computational methods have been developed to address this task. In addition, it remains a significant challenge to explain key functional groups determining metabolic stability. RESULTS To address these issues, we develop a novel cross-modality graph contrastive learning model named CMMS-GCL for predicting the metabolic stability of drug candidates. In our framework, we design deep learning methods to extract features for molecules from two modality data, i.e. SMILES sequence and molecule graph. In particular, for the sequence data, we design a multihead attention BiGRU-based encoder to preserve the context of symbols to learn sequence representations of molecules. For the graph data, we propose a graph contrastive learning-based encoder to learn structure representations by effectively capturing the consistencies between local and global structures. We further exploit fully connected neural networks to combine the sequence and structure representations for model training. Extensive experimental results on two datasets demonstrate that our CMMS-GCL consistently outperforms seven state-of-the-art methods. Furthermore, a collection of case studies on sequence data and statistical analyses of the graph structure module strengthens the validation of the interpretability of crucial functional groups recognized by CMMS-GCL. Overall, CMMS-GCL can serve as an effective and interpretable tool for predicting metabolic stability, identifying critical functional groups, and thus facilitating the drug discovery process and lead compound optimization. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION The code and data underlying this article are freely available at https://github.com/dubingxue/CMMS-GCL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing-Xue Du
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
- Institute for Infocomm Research (IR), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138632, Singapore
| | - Yahui Long
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138648, Singapore
| | - Xiaoli Li
- Institute for Infocomm Research (IR), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138632, Singapore
| | - Min Wu
- Institute for Infocomm Research (IR), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138632, Singapore
| | - Jian-Yu Shi
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
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8
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Wang AQ, Hagen NR, Padilha EC, Yang M, Shah P, Chen CZ, Huang W, Terse P, Sanderson P, Zheng W, Xu X. Preclinical Pharmacokinetics and In Vitro Properties of GS-441524, a Potential Oral Drug Candidate for COVID-19 Treatment. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:918083. [PMID: 36052127 PMCID: PMC9424906 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.918083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Preclinical pharmacokinetics (PK) and In Vitro ADME properties of GS-441524, a potential oral agent for the treatment of Covid-19, were studied. GS-441524 was stable in vitro in liver microsomes, cytosols, and hepatocytes of mice, rats, monkeys, dogs, and humans. The plasma free fractions of GS-441524 were 62-78% across all studied species. The in vitro transporter study results showed that GS-441524 was a substrate of MDR1, BCRP, CNT3, ENT1, and ENT2; but not a substrate of CNT1, CNT2, and ENT4. GS-441524 had a low to moderate plasma clearance (CLp), ranging from 4.1 mL/min/kg in dogs to 26 mL/min/kg in mice; the steady state volume distribution (Vdss) ranged from 0.9 L/kg in dogs to 2.4 L/kg in mice after IV administration. Urinary excretion appeared to be the major elimination process for GS-441524. Following oral administration, the oral bioavailability was 8.3% in monkeys, 33% in rats, 39% in mice, and 85% in dogs. The PK and ADME properties of GS-441524 support its further development as an oral drug candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Q. Wang
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Xin Xu
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
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9
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Frankowski KJ, Patnaik S, Wang C, Southall N, Dutta D, De S, Li D, Dextras C, Lin YH, Bryant-Connah M, Davis D, Wang F, Wachsmuth LM, Shah P, Williams J, Kabir M, Zhu E, Baljinnyam B, Wang A, Xu X, Norton J, Ferrer M, Titus S, Simeonov A, Zheng W, Mathews Griner LA, Jadhav A, Aubé J, Henderson MJ, Rudloff U, Schoenen FJ, Huang S, Marugan JJ. Discovery and Optimization of Pyrrolopyrimidine Derivatives as Selective Disruptors of the Perinucleolar Compartment, a Marker of Tumor Progression toward Metastasis. J Med Chem 2022; 65:8303-8331. [PMID: 35696646 PMCID: PMC10024865 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c00204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The perinucleolar compartment (PNC) is a dynamic subnuclear body found at the periphery of the nucleolus. The PNC is enriched with RNA transcripts and RNA-binding proteins, reflecting different states of genome organization. PNC prevalence positively correlates with cancer progression and metastatic capacity, making it a useful marker for metastatic cancer progression. A high-throughput, high-content assay was developed to identify novel small molecules that selectively reduce PNC prevalence in cancer cells. We identified and further optimized a pyrrolopyrimidine series able to reduce PNC prevalence in PC3M cancer cells at submicromolar concentrations without affecting cell viability. Structure-activity relationship exploration of the structural elements necessary for activity resulted in the discovery of several potent compounds. Analysis of in vitro drug-like properties led to the discovery of the bioavailable analogue, metarrestin, which has shown potent antimetastatic activity with improved survival in rodent models and is currently being evaluated in a first-in-human phase 1 clinical trial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J Frankowski
- KU Specialized Chemistry Center, University of Kansas, 2034 Becker Drive, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States.,Center for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Samarjit Patnaik
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Chen Wang
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
| | - Noel Southall
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Dipannita Dutta
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Soumitta De
- Rare Tumor Initiative, Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Dandan Li
- Rare Tumor Initiative, Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Christopher Dextras
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Yi-Han Lin
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Marthe Bryant-Connah
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Danielle Davis
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Feijun Wang
- Center for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Leah M Wachsmuth
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Pranav Shah
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Jordan Williams
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Md Kabir
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Edward Zhu
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Bolormaa Baljinnyam
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Amy Wang
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Xin Xu
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - John Norton
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
| | - Marc Ferrer
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Steve Titus
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Anton Simeonov
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Wei Zheng
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Lesley A Mathews Griner
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Ajit Jadhav
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Jeffrey Aubé
- KU Specialized Chemistry Center, University of Kansas, 2034 Becker Drive, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States.,Center for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Mark J Henderson
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Udo Rudloff
- Rare Tumor Initiative, Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Frank J Schoenen
- KU Specialized Chemistry Center, University of Kansas, 2034 Becker Drive, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States
| | - Sui Huang
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
| | - Juan J Marugan
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
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10
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Williams J, Siramshetty V, Nguyễn ÐT, Padilha EC, Kabir M, Yu KR, Wang AQ, Zhao T, Itkin M, Shinn P, Mathé EA, Xu X, Shah P. Using in vitro ADME data for lead compound selection: An emphasis on PAMPA pH 5 permeability and oral bioavailability. Bioorg Med Chem 2022; 56:116588. [PMID: 35030421 PMCID: PMC9843724 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Membrane permeability plays an important role in oral drug absorption. Caco-2 and Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cell culture systems have been widely used for assessing intestinal permeability. Since most drugs are absorbed passively, Parallel Artificial Membrane Permeability Assay (PAMPA) has gained popularity as a low-cost and high-throughput method in early drug discovery when compared to high-cost, labor intensive cell-based assays. At the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), PAMPA pH 5 is employed as one of the Tier I absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination (ADME) assays. In this study, we have developed a quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) model using our ∼6500 compound PAMPA pH 5 permeability dataset. Along with ensemble decision tree-based methods such as Random Forest and eXtreme Gradient Boosting, we employed deep neural network and a graph convolutional neural network to model PAMPA pH 5 permeability. The classification models trained on a balanced training set provided accuracies ranging from 71% to 78% on the external set. Of the four classifiers, the graph convolutional neural network that directly operates on molecular graphs offered the best classification performance. Additionally, an ∼85% correlation was obtained between PAMPA pH 5 permeability and in vivo oral bioavailability in mice and rats. These results suggest that data from this assay (experimental or predicted) can be used to rank-order compounds for preclinical in vivo testing with a high degree of confidence, reducing cost and attrition as well as accelerating the drug discovery process. Additionally, experimental data for 486 compounds (PubChem AID: 1645871) and the best models have been made publicly available (https://opendata.ncats.nih.gov/adme/).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Williams
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Vishal Siramshetty
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Ðắc-Trung Nguyễn
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Elias Carvalho Padilha
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Md Kabir
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States,The Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, United States
| | - Kyeong-Ri Yu
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States,Department of Surgery, Virginia Commonwealth University Health Systems, 1200 E Broad St, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
| | - Amy Q. Wang
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Tongan Zhao
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Misha Itkin
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Paul Shinn
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Ewy A. Mathé
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Xin Xu
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Pranav Shah
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States,Corresponding Author: Pranav Shah,
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11
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Ryu JY, Lee JH, Lee BH, Song JS, Ahn S, Oh KS. PredMS: a random forest model for predicting metabolic stability of drug candidates in human liver microsomes. Bioinformatics 2022; 38:364-368. [PMID: 34515778 DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btab547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
MOTIVATION Poor metabolic stability leads to drug development failure. Therefore, it is essential to evaluate the metabolic stability of small compounds for successful drug discovery and development. However, evaluating metabolic stability in vitro and in vivo is expensive, time-consuming and laborious. In addition, only a few free software programs are available for metabolic stability data and prediction. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to develop a prediction model that predicts the metabolic stability of small compounds. RESULTS We developed a computational model, PredMS, which predicts the metabolic stability of small compounds as stable or unstable in human liver microsomes. PredMS is based on a random forest model using an in-house database of metabolic stability data of 1917 compounds. To validate the prediction performance of PredMS, we generated external test data of 61 compounds. PredMS achieved an accuracy of 0.74, Matthew's correlation coefficient of 0.48, sensitivity of 0.70, specificity of 0.86, positive predictive value of 0.94 and negative predictive value of 0.46 on the external test dataset. PredMS will be a useful tool to predict the metabolic stability of small compounds in the early stages of drug discovery and development. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION The source code for PredMS is available at https://bitbucket.org/krictai/predms, and the PredMS web server is available at https://predms.netlify.app. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae Yong Ryu
- Department of Biotechnology, Duksung Women's University, Seoul 01369, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Hyun Lee
- Data Convergence Drug Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, 34114 Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Byung Ho Lee
- Data Convergence Drug Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, 34114 Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Sook Song
- Data Convergence Drug Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, 34114 Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunjoo Ahn
- Data Convergence Drug Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, 34114 Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Department of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34129, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang-Seok Oh
- Data Convergence Drug Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, 34114 Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Department of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34129, Republic of Korea
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12
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Wojtuch A, Jankowski R, Podlewska S. How can SHAP values help to shape metabolic stability of chemical compounds? J Cheminform 2021; 13:74. [PMID: 34579792 PMCID: PMC8477573 DOI: 10.1186/s13321-021-00542-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Computational methods support nowadays each stage of drug design campaigns. They assist not only in the process of identification of new active compounds towards particular biological target, but also help in the evaluation and optimization of their physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties. Such features are not less important in terms of the possible turn of a compound into a future drug than its desired affinity profile towards considered proteins. In the study, we focus on metabolic stability, which determines the time that the compound can act in the organism and play its role as a drug. Due to great complexity of xenobiotic transformation pathways in the living organisms, evaluation and optimization of metabolic stability remains a big challenge. Results Here, we present a novel methodology for the evaluation and analysis of structural features influencing metabolic stability. To this end, we use a well-established explainability method called SHAP. We built several predictive models and analyse their predictions with the SHAP values to reveal how particular compound substructures influence the model’s prediction. The method can be widely applied by users thanks to the web service, which accompanies the article. It allows a detailed analysis of SHAP values obtained for compounds from the ChEMBL database, as well as their determination and analysis for any compound submitted by a user. Moreover, the service enables manual analysis of the possible structural modifications via the provision of analogous analysis for the most similar compound from the ChEMBL dataset. Conclusions To our knowledge, this is the first attempt to employ SHAP to reveal which substructural features are utilized by machine learning models when evaluating compound metabolic stability. The accompanying web service for metabolic stability evaluation can be of great help for medicinal chemists. Its significant usefulness is related not only to the possibility of assessing compound stability, but also to the provision of information about substructures influencing this parameter. It can assist in the design of new ligands with improved metabolic stability, helping in the detection of privileged and unfavourable chemical moieties during stability optimization. The tool is available at https://metstab-shap.matinf.uj.edu.pl/.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Wojtuch
- Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, 6 S. Łojasiewicza Street, 30-348, Kraków, Poland
| | - Rafał Jankowski
- Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, 6 S. Łojasiewicza Street, 30-348, Kraków, Poland
| | - Sabina Podlewska
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna Street, 31-343, Kraków, Poland. .,Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 9 Medyczna Street, 30-688, Kraków, Poland.
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13
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Dhuria NV, Haro B, Kapadia A, Lobo KA, Matusow B, Schleiff MA, Tantoy C, Sodhi JK. Recent developments in predicting CYP-independent metabolism. Drug Metab Rev 2021; 53:188-206. [PMID: 33941024 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2021.1923728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
As lead optimization efforts have successfully reduced metabolic liabilities due to cytochrome P450 (CYP)-mediated metabolism, there has been an increase in the frequency of involvement of non-CYP enzymes in the metabolism of investigational compounds. Although there have been numerous notable advancements in the characterization of non-CYP enzymes with respect to their localization, reaction mechanisms, species differences and identification of typical substrates, accurate prediction of non-CYP-mediated clearance, with a particular emphasis with the difficulties in accounting for any extrahepatic contributions, remains a challenge. The current manuscript comprehensively summarizes the recent advancements in the prediction of drug metabolism and the in vitro to in vitro extrapolation of clearance for substrates of non-CYP drug metabolizing enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikhilesh V Dhuria
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Bianka Haro
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Amit Kapadia
- California Poison Control Center, University of California San Francisco, San Diego, CA, USA
| | | | - Bernice Matusow
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Plexxikon Inc, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Mary A Schleiff
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Christina Tantoy
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Plexxikon Inc, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Jasleen K Sodhi
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Plexxikon Inc, Berkeley, CA, USA.,Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, Schools of Pharmacy and Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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14
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Padilha EC, Shah P, Rai G, Xu X. NOX2 inhibitor GSK2795039 metabolite identification towards drug optimization. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2021; 201:114102. [PMID: 33992989 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2021.114102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can lead to several disease states, such as diabetic nephropathy and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. One of the most studied mechanisms to inhibit the over production of ROS is the inhibition of NADPH oxidase (NOX) enzymes, which catalyze the conversion of cytoplasmic NADPH to NADP+, resulting in the formation of superoxide anions. GSK2795039 has been shown to selectively inhibit the NOX2 isoform, however, clearance of the compound was high in rats and mice. Therefore, identifying metabolic soft spots would be crucial in guiding the optimization process to improve its pharmacokinetic properties. GSK2795039 (10 μM) was incubated in the presence of mouse, rat and human liver microsomal (1 mg/mL) and cytosolic (2 mg/mL) fractions and appropriate co-factors, followed by MSe fragment analysis to identify metabolic soft spots. GSK2795039 showed marked species differences in its metabolism. The alkyl side chains and indoline moiety were the most common sites of biotransformation. The compound was identified to be an aldehyde oxidase substrate. Additionally, unique human metabolites were observed in vitro. Our study sheds light on structure optimization opportunities for developing improved NOX2 inhibitors, and it will help overcome the challenges involved in preclinical species selection for its safety evaluations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elias Carvalho Padilha
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Pranav Shah
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Ganesha Rai
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Xin Xu
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States.
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15
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Siramshetty VB, Shah P, Kerns E, Nguyen K, Yu KR, Kabir M, Williams J, Neyra J, Southall N, Nguyễn ÐT, Xu X. Retrospective assessment of rat liver microsomal stability at NCATS: data and QSAR models. Sci Rep 2020; 10:20713. [PMID: 33244000 PMCID: PMC7693334 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-77327-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatic metabolic stability is a key pharmacokinetic parameter in drug discovery. Metabolic stability is usually assessed in microsomal fractions and only the best compounds progress in the drug discovery process. A high-throughput single time point substrate depletion assay in rat liver microsomes (RLM) is employed at the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences. Between 2012 and 2020, RLM stability data was generated for ~ 24,000 compounds from more than 250 projects that cover a wide range of pharmacological targets and cellular pathways. Although a crucial endpoint, little or no data exists in the public domain. In this study, computational models were developed for predicting RLM stability using different machine learning methods. In addition, a retrospective time-split validation was performed, and local models were built for projects that performed poorly with global models. Further analysis revealed inherent medicinal chemistry knowledge potentially useful to chemists in the pursuit of synthesizing metabolically stable compounds. In addition, we deposited experimental data for ~ 2500 compounds in the PubChem bioassay database (AID: 1508591). The global prediction models are made publicly accessible ( https://opendata.ncats.nih.gov/adme ). This is to the best of our knowledge, the first publicly available RLM prediction model built using high-quality data generated at a single laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishal B Siramshetty
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Pranav Shah
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Edward Kerns
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Kimloan Nguyen
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA.,NY State Public Health, DOHMH 42-09 28th St, Long Island City, NY, 11101, USA
| | - Kyeong Ri Yu
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA.,School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1201 E Marshall St, Richmond, VA, 23298, USA
| | - Md Kabir
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA.,The Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, 10029, USA
| | - Jordan Williams
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Jorge Neyra
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Noel Southall
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Ðắc-Trung Nguyễn
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Xin Xu
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA.
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