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Cases M, Dorca-Arévalo J, Blanch M, Rodil S, Terni B, Martín-Satué M, Llobet A, Blasi J, Solsona C. The epsilon toxin from Clostridium perfringens stimulates calcium-activated chloride channels, generating extracellular vesicles in Xenopus oocytes. Pharmacol Res Perspect 2024; 12:e70005. [PMID: 39320019 PMCID: PMC11423345 DOI: 10.1002/prp2.70005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 07/18/2024] [Accepted: 08/08/2024] [Indexed: 09/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The epsilon toxin (Etx) from Clostridium perfringens has been identified as a potential trigger of multiple sclerosis, functioning as a pore-forming toxin that selectively targets cells expressing the plasma membrane (PM) myelin and lymphocyte protein (MAL). Previously, we observed that Etx induces the release of intracellular ATP in sensitive cell lines. Here, we aimed to re-examine the mechanism of action of the toxin and investigate the connection between pore formation and ATP release. We examined the impact of Etx on Xenopus laevis oocytes expressing human MAL. Extracellular ATP was assessed using the luciferin-luciferase reaction. Activation of calcium-activated chloride channels (CaCCs) and a decrease in the PM surface were recorded using the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique. To evaluate intracellular Ca2+ levels and scramblase activity, fluorescent dyes were employed. Extracellular vesicles were imaged using light and electron microscopy, while toxin oligomers were identified through western blots. Etx triggered intracellular Ca2+ mobilization in the Xenopus oocytes expressing hMAL, leading to the activation of CaCCs, ATP release, and a reduction in PM capacitance. The toxin induced the activation of scramblase and, thus, translocated phospholipids from the inner to the outer leaflet of the PM, exposing phosphatidylserine outside in Xenopus oocytes and in an Etx-sensitive cell line. Moreover, Etx caused the formation of extracellular vesicles, not derived from apoptotic bodies, through PM fission. These vesicles carried toxin heptamers and doughnut-like structures in the nanometer size range. In conclusion, ATP release was not directly attributed to the formation of pores in the PM, but to scramblase activity and the formation of extracellular vesicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercè Cases
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jonatan Dorca-Arévalo
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Blanch
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Sergi Rodil
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Beatrice Terni
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Martín-Satué
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Artur Llobet
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Juan Blasi
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carles Solsona
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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Nan X, Zhao W, Liu WH, Li Y, Li N, Hong Y, Cui J, Shang X, Feng H, Hung WL, Peng G. Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BL-99 ameliorates colitis-related lung injury in mice by modulating short-chain fatty acid production and inflammatory monocytes/macrophages. Food Funct 2023; 14:1099-1112. [PMID: 36594489 DOI: 10.1039/d2fo03374g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Pulmonary inflammation as one of the extraintestinal manifestations of ulcerative colitis (UC) has attracted extensive attention, and its pathogenesis is closely related to gut dysbiosis. Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BL-99 (BL-99) can alleviate osteoporosis caused by UC, but less research has been done on other extraintestinal manifestations (EIM) caused by UC. This study aimed to explore the role and potential mechanisms of BL-99 on DSS-induced pulmonary complications in colitis mice. The results showed that BL-99 decreased weight loss, disease activity index score, colonic pathology score, and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) in colitis mice. BL-99 also alleviated DSS-induced lung pathological damage by suppressing the infiltration of pro-inflammatory cytokines, inflammatory monocytes, and macrophages. Furthermore, 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed lower abundances of several potentially pathogenic bacteria (e.g., Burkholderia, Shigella, and Clostridium perfringens) and enrichment in specific beneficial bacteria (e.g., Adlercreutzia and Bifidobacterium animalis) in colitis mice with BL-99 treatment. Targeted metabolomics suggested that BL-99 intervention promoted the production of intestinal acetate and butyrate. Finally, we observed that the pulmonary expression of primary acetate and butyrate receptors, including FFAR2, FFAR3, and, GPR109a, was up-regulated in BL-99-treated mice, which negatively correlated with inflammatory monocytes and macrophages. Altogether, these results suggest that BL-99 might be utilized as a probiotic intervention to prevent the incidence of colitis-related lung injury owing to its ability to shape the intestinal microbiota and suppress inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinmei Nan
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China.
| | - Wen Zhao
- Inner Mongolia Yili Industrial Group Co., Ltd., Hohhot 010110, Inner Mongolia, China.
| | - Wei-Hsien Liu
- Inner Mongolia Yili Industrial Group Co., Ltd., Hohhot 010110, Inner Mongolia, China.
| | - Yalan Li
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China.
| | - Na Li
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China.
| | - Yanfei Hong
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China.
| | - Jiaqi Cui
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China.
| | - Xuekai Shang
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China.
| | - Haotian Feng
- Inner Mongolia Yili Industrial Group Co., Ltd., Hohhot 010110, Inner Mongolia, China.
| | - Wei-Lian Hung
- Inner Mongolia Yili Industrial Group Co., Ltd., Hohhot 010110, Inner Mongolia, China.
| | - Guiying Peng
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China.
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Marshall S, McGill B, Morcrette H, Winlove CP, Chimerel C, Petrov PG, Bokori-Brown M. Interaction of Clostridium perfringens Epsilon Toxin with the Plasma Membrane: The Role of Amino Acids Y42, Y43 and H162. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14110757. [PMID: 36356007 PMCID: PMC9694948 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14110757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (Etx) is a pore forming toxin that causes enterotoxaemia in ruminants and may be a cause of multiple sclerosis in humans. To date, most in vitro studies of Etx have used the Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cell line. However, studies using Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells engineered to express the putative Etx receptor, myelin and lymphocyte protein (MAL), suggest that amino acids important for Etx activity differ between species. In this study, we investigated the role of amino acids Y42, Y43 and H162, previously identified as important in Etx activity towards MDCK cells, in Etx activity towards CHO-human MAL (CHO-hMAL) cells, human red blood cells (hRBCs) and synthetic bilayers using site-directed mutants of Etx. We show that in CHO-hMAL cells Y42 is critical for Etx binding and not Y43 as in MDCK cells, indicating that surface exposed tyrosine residues in the receptor binding domain of Etx impact efficiency of cell binding to MAL-expressing cells in a species-specific manner. We also show that Etx mutant H162A was unable to lyse CHO-hMAL cells, lysed hRBCs, whilst it was able to form pores in synthetic bilayers, providing evidence of the complexity of Etx pore formation in different lipid environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Skye Marshall
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter EX4 4QL, UK
| | - Beth McGill
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter EX4 4QL, UK
| | - Helen Morcrette
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
| | - C. Peter Winlove
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter EX4 4QL, UK
| | - Catalin Chimerel
- Automation Department, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Transilvania University of Brasov, 500036 Brasov, Romania
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Peter G. Petrov
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter EX4 4QL, UK
- Correspondence: (P.G.P.); (M.B.-B.); Tel.: +44-1392-724139 (P.G.P.)
| | - Monika Bokori-Brown
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
- Correspondence: (P.G.P.); (M.B.-B.); Tel.: +44-1392-724139 (P.G.P.)
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[Role of myelin and lymphocyte protein in regulating pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell proliferation and apoptosis in pulmonary hypertension]. NAN FANG YI KE DA XUE XUE BAO = JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN MEDICAL UNIVERSITY 2022; 42:1572-1577. [PMID: 36329594 PMCID: PMC9637499 DOI: 10.12122/j.issn.1673-4254.2022.10.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the role of myelin and lymphocyte protein (MAL) in pulmonary hypertension (PAH). METHODS Blood samples were collected from 50 patients with PAH (PAH group) and 50 healthy individuals for detection of plasma MAL expression using ELISA.According to the echocardiographic findings, the patients were divided into moderate/severe group (n=18) and mild group (n=32), and the correlation between MAL protein level and the severity of PAH was analyzed.In a pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell model of PAH with hypoxia-induced abnormal proliferation, the effects of mal gene knockdown and overexpression on cell growth, proliferation and starvation-induced apoptosis were observed; the changes in NK-κB signaling pathway in the transfected cells were detected to explore the molecular mechanism by which MAL regulates PAMSC proliferation and apoptosis. RESULTS The plasma level of MAL was significantly higher in patients with PAH than in healthy individuals (P < 0.05), and the patients with moderate/severe PAH had significantly higher MAL level than those with mild PAH (P < 0.001).In PAMSCs, exposure to hypoxia significantly increased the mRNA and protein expression levels of MAL (P < 0.05), and MAL knockdown obviously inhibited hypoxia-induced proliferation and promoted starvation-induced apoptosis of the PAMSCs (P < 0.05).Knocking down mal significantly inhibited the activation of NK-κB signaling pathway that participated in regulation of PAMSC proliferation (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION The plasma level of MAL is elevated in PAH patients in positive correlation with the disease severity.MAL knockdown inhibits abnormal proliferation and promotes apoptosis of PAMSCs by targeted inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway to improve vascular remodeling in PAH.
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Dorca-Arévalo J, Gómez de Aranda I, Blasi J. New Mutants of Epsilon Toxin from Clostridium perfringens with an Altered Receptor-Binding Site and Cell-Type Specificity. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14040288. [PMID: 35448898 PMCID: PMC9031233 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14040288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (Etx) from Clostridium perfringens is the third most potent toxin after the botulinum and tetanus toxins. Etx is the main agent of enterotoxemia in ruminants and is produced by Clostridium perfringens toxinotypes B and D, causing great economic losses. Etx selectively binds to target cells, oligomerizes and inserts into the plasma membrane, and forms pores. A series of mutants have been previously generated to understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms of the toxin and to obtain valid molecular tools for effective vaccination protocols. Here, two new non-toxic Etx mutants were generated by selective deletions in the binding (Etx-ΔS188-F196) or insertion (Etx-ΔV108-F135) domains of the toxin. As expected, our results showed that Etx-ΔS188-F196 did not exhibit the usual Etx binding pattern but surprisingly recognized specifically an O-glycoprotein present in the proximal tubules of the kidneys in a wide range of animals, including ruminants. Although diminished, Etx-ΔV108-F135 maintained the capacity for binding and even oligomerization, indicating that the mutation particularly affected the pore-forming ability of the toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonatan Dorca-Arévalo
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain; (I.G.d.A.); (J.B.)
- Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08908 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - Inmaculada Gómez de Aranda
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain; (I.G.d.A.); (J.B.)
| | - Juan Blasi
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain; (I.G.d.A.); (J.B.)
- Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08908 Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
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Mazzucco M, Mannheim W, Shetty SV, Linden JR. CNS endothelial derived extracellular vesicles are biomarkers of active disease in multiple sclerosis. Fluids Barriers CNS 2022; 19:13. [PMID: 35135557 PMCID: PMC8822708 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-021-00299-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex, heterogenous disease characterized by inflammation, demyelination, and blood–brain barrier (BBB) permeability. Currently, active disease is determined by physician confirmed relapse or detection of contrast enhancing lesions via MRI indicative of BBB permeability. However, clinical confirmation of active disease can be cumbersome. As such, disease monitoring in MS could benefit from identification of an easily accessible biomarker of active disease. We believe extracellular vesicles (EV) isolated from plasma are excellent candidates to fulfill this need. Because of the critical role BBB permeability plays in MS pathogenesis and identification of active disease, we sought to identify EV originating from central nervous system (CNS) endothelial as biomarkers of active MS. Because endothelial cells secrete more EV when stimulated or injured, we hypothesized that circulating concentrations of CNS endothelial derived EV will be increased in MS patients with active disease. Methods To test this, we developed a novel method to identify EV originating from CNS endothelial cells isolated from patient plasma using flow cytometry. Endothelial derived EV were identified by the absence of lymphocyte or platelet markers CD3 and CD41, respectively, and positive expression of pan-endothelial markers CD31, CD105, or CD144. To determine if endothelial derived EV originated from CNS endothelial cells, EV expressing CD31, CD105, or CD144 were evaluated for expression of the myelin and lymphocyte protein MAL, a protein specifically expressed by CNS endothelial cells compared to endothelial cells of peripheral organs. Results Quality control experiments indicate that EV detected using our flow cytometry method are 0.2 to 1 micron in size. Flow cytometry analysis of EV isolated from 20 healthy controls, 16 relapsing–remitting MS (RRMS) patients with active disease not receiving disease modifying therapy, 14 RRMS patients with stable disease not receiving disease modifying therapy, 17 relapsing-RRMS patients with stable disease receiving natalizumab, and 14 RRMS patients with stable disease receiving ocrelizumab revealed a significant increase in the plasma concentration of CNS endothelial derived EV in patients with active disease compared to all other groups (p = 0.001). Conclusions: For the first time, we have identified a method to identify CNS endothelial derived EV in circulation from human blood samples. Results from our pilot study indicate that increased levels of CNS endothelial derived EV may be a biomarker of BBB permeability and active disease in MS. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12987-021-00299-4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Mazzucco
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, 1300 York Ave, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - William Mannheim
- Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Samantha V Shetty
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, 1300 York Ave, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Jennifer R Linden
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, 1300 York Ave, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
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Rubio-Ramos A, Labat-de-Hoz L, Correas I, Alonso MA. The MAL Protein, an Integral Component of Specialized Membranes, in Normal Cells and Cancer. Cells 2021; 10:1065. [PMID: 33946345 PMCID: PMC8145151 DOI: 10.3390/cells10051065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The MAL gene encodes a 17-kDa protein containing four putative transmembrane segments whose expression is restricted to human T cells, polarized epithelial cells and myelin-forming cells. The MAL protein has two unusual biochemical features. First, it has lipid-like properties that qualify it as a member of the group of proteolipid proteins. Second, it partitions selectively into detergent-insoluble membranes, which are known to be enriched in condensed cell membranes, consistent with MAL being distributed in highly ordered membranes in the cell. Since its original description more than thirty years ago, a large body of evidence has accumulated supporting a role of MAL in specialized membranes in all the cell types in which it is expressed. Here, we review the structure, expression and biochemical characteristics of MAL, and discuss the association of MAL with raft membranes and the function of MAL in polarized epithelial cells, T lymphocytes, and myelin-forming cells. The evidence that MAL is a putative receptor of the epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringens, the expression of MAL in lymphomas, the hypermethylation of the MAL gene and subsequent loss of MAL expression in carcinomas are also presented. We propose a model of MAL as the organizer of specialized condensed membranes to make them functional, discuss the role of MAL as a tumor suppressor in carcinomas, consider its potential use as a cancer biomarker, and summarize the directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armando Rubio-Ramos
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (A.R.-R.); (L.L.-d.-H.); (I.C.)
| | - Leticia Labat-de-Hoz
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (A.R.-R.); (L.L.-d.-H.); (I.C.)
| | - Isabel Correas
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (A.R.-R.); (L.L.-d.-H.); (I.C.)
- Department of Molecular Biology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel A. Alonso
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (A.R.-R.); (L.L.-d.-H.); (I.C.)
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