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Vezzoli A, Mrakic-Sposta S, Brizzolari A, Balestra C, Camporesi EM, Bosco G. Oxy-Inflammation in Humans during Underwater Activities. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:3060. [PMID: 38474303 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25053060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2024] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Underwater activities are characterized by an imbalance between reactive oxygen/nitrogen species (RONS) and antioxidant mechanisms, which can be associated with an inflammatory response, depending on O2 availability. This review explores the oxidative stress mechanisms and related inflammation status (Oxy-Inflammation) in underwater activities such as breath-hold (BH) diving, Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus (SCUBA) and Closed-Circuit Rebreather (CCR) diving, and saturation diving. Divers are exposed to hypoxic and hyperoxic conditions, amplified by environmental conditions, hyperbaric pressure, cold water, different types of breathing gases, and air/non-air mixtures. The "diving response", including physiological adaptation, cardiovascular stress, increased arterial blood pressure, peripheral vasoconstriction, altered blood gas values, and risk of bubble formation during decompression, are reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Vezzoli
- Institute of Clinical Physiology-National Research Council (CNR-IFC), 20142 Milano, Italy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Simona Mrakic-Sposta
- Institute of Clinical Physiology-National Research Council (CNR-IFC), 20142 Milano, Italy
| | - Andrea Brizzolari
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Costantino Balestra
- Environmental, Occupational, Aging (Integrative) Physiology Laboratory, Haute Ecole Bruxelles-Brabant (HE2B), 1160 Brussels, Belgium
- Physical Activity Teaching Unit, Motor Sciences Department, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium
- DAN Europe Research Division (Roseto-Brussels), 1160 Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Gerardo Bosco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
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Monnoyer R, Eftedal I, Hjelde A, Deb S, Haugum K, Lautridou J. Functional Profiling Reveals Altered Metabolic Activity in Divers' Oral Microbiota During Commercial Heliox Saturation Diving. Front Physiol 2021; 12:702634. [PMID: 34721054 PMCID: PMC8548618 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.702634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The extreme environment in saturation diving affects all life forms, including the bacteria that reside on human skin and mucosa. The oral cavity alone is home to hundreds of different bacteria. In this study, we examined the metabolic activity of oral bacteria from healthy males during commercial heliox saturation diving. We focused on environmentally induced changes that might affect the divers’ health and fitness. Methods: We performed pathway abundance analysis using PICRUSt2, a bioinformatics software package that uses marker gene data to compute the metabolic activity of microbial communities. The analysis is based on 16S rRNA metagenomic data generated from the oral microbiota of 23 male divers before, during, and after 4weeks of commercial heliox saturation diving. Environmentally induced changes in bacterial metabolism were computed from differences in predicted pathway abundances at baseline before, versus during, and immediately after saturation diving. Results and Conclusion: The analysis predicted transient changes that were primarily associated with the survival and growth of bacteria in oxygenated environments. There was a relative increase in the abundance of aerobic metabolic pathways and a concomitant decrease in anaerobic metabolic pathways, primarily comprising of energy metabolism, oxidative stress responses, and adenosylcobalamin biosynthesis. Adenosylcobalamin is a bioactive form of vitamin B12 (vitB12), and a reduction in vitB12 biosynthesis may hypothetically affect the divers’ physiology. While host effects of oral bacterial vitamin metabolism are uncertain, this is a finding that concurs with the existing recommendations for vitB12 supplements as part of the divers’ diet, whether to boost antioxidant defenses in bacteria or their host or to improve oxygen transport during saturation diving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxane Monnoyer
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ingrid Eftedal
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.,Faculty of Nursing and Health Sciences, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
| | - Astrid Hjelde
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sanjoy Deb
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.,Centre for Nutraceuticals, School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kjersti Haugum
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Medical Microbiology, Clinic of Laboratory Medicine, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jacky Lautridou
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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BOSCO G, VERRATTI V, PAGANINI M, RIZZATO A, D’ALESSANDRO N, PIETRANGELO T, ZANON V, CAMPORESI E. Psychophysiological factors in prolonged scuba-diving: a longitudinal case study of an elite diver. GAZZETTA MEDICA ITALIANA ARCHIVIO PER LE SCIENZE MEDICHE 2021. [DOI: 10.23736/s0393-3660.19.04282-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Deb SK, Dolan E, Hambly C, Speakman JR, Eftedal O, Zariwala MG, Eftedal I. The Assessment of Daily Energy Expenditure of Commercial Saturation Divers Using Doubly Labelled Water. Front Physiol 2021; 12:687605. [PMID: 34149460 PMCID: PMC8208080 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.687605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Commercial saturation divers are exposed to unique environmental conditions and are required to conduct work activity underwater. Consequently, divers' physiological status is shown to be perturbed and therefore, appropriate strategies and guidance are required to manage the stress and adaptive response. This study aimed to evaluate the daily energy expenditure (DEE) of commercial saturation divers during a 21-day diving operation in the North Sea. Ten saturation divers were recruited during a diving operation with a living depth of 72 metres seawater (msw) and a maximum working dive depth of 81 msw. Doubly labelled water (DLW) was used to calculate DEE during a 10-day measurement period. Energy intake was also recorded during this period by maintaining a dietary log. The mean DEE calculated was 3030.9 ± 513.0 kcal/day, which was significantly greater than the mean energy intake (1875.3 ± 487.4 kcal; p = 0.005). There was also a strong positive correction correlation between DEE and total time spent performing underwater work (r = 0.7, p = 0.026). The results suggested saturation divers were in a negative energy balance during the measurement period with an intraindividual variability in the energy cost present that may be influenced by time spent underwater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjoy K. Deb
- Centre for Nutraceuticals, School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Eimear Dolan
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Catherine Hambly
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - John R. Speakman
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
- Centre of Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | | | - Mohammed Gulrez Zariwala
- Centre for Nutraceuticals, School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ingrid Eftedal
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Faculty of Nursing and Health Sciences, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
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Change in Oxidative Stress Biomarkers During 30 Days in Saturation Dive: A Pilot Study. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17197118. [PMID: 32998440 PMCID: PMC7579105 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17197118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 09/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Saturation diving allows divers to reduce the risk of decompression sickness while working at depth for prolonged periods but may increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Such modifications can affect endothelial function by exacerbating oxidative stress. This study investigated the effects of saturation diving on oxidative stress damage. Redox status was evaluated through: ROS production; total antioxidant capacity (TAC); nitric oxide metabolites (NOx); nitrotyrosine (3-NT); and lipid peroxidation (8-iso-PGF2α) assessment. Creatinine and neopterin were analyzed as markers of renal function and damage. Measurements were performed on saliva and urine samples obtained at four time points: pre; deep; post; and 24 h post. Four divers were included in the study. After the saturation dive (post), significant (p < 0.05) increases in ROS (0.12 ± 0.03 vs. 0.36 ± 0.06 µmol.min-1), TAC (1.88 ± 0.03 vs. 2.01 ± 0.08 mM), NOx (207.0 ± 103.3 vs. 441.8 ± 97.3 µM), 3-NT (43.32 ± 18.03 vs. 18.64 ± 7.45 nM·L-1), and 8-iso-PGF2α (249.7 ± 45.1 vs. 371.9 ± 54.9 pg·mg-1 creatinine) were detected. Markers of renal damage were increased as well after the end of the saturation dive (creatinine 0.54 ± 0.22 vs. 2.72 ± 1.12 g-L-1; neopterin 73.3 ± 27.9 vs. 174.3 ± 20.53 μmol·mol-1 creatinine). These results could ameliorate commercial or military diving protocols or improve the understanding of symptoms caused by oxygen level elevation.
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Łuczyński D, Lautridou J, Hjelde A, Monnoyer R, Eftedal I. Hemoglobin During and Following a 4-Week Commercial Saturation Dive to 200 m. Front Physiol 2019; 10:1494. [PMID: 31866879 PMCID: PMC6909923 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Commercial saturation divers must acclimatize to hyperbaric hyperoxia in their work environment, and subsequently readjust to breathing normal air when their period in saturation is over. In this study, we measured hemoglobin (Hb) during and following 4 weeks of heliox saturation diving in order to monitor anemia development and the time for Hb to recover post-saturation. Male commercial saturation divers reported their capillary blood Hb daily, before, and during 28 days of heliox saturation to a working depth of circa 200 m (n = 11), and for 12 days at surface post-saturation (n = 9–7), using HemoCue 201+ Hb devices. Hb remained in normal range during the bottom phase, but fell during the decompression; reaching levels of mild anemia (≤13.6 g/dl) the day after the divers’ return to the surface. Hb was significantly lower than the pre-saturation baseline (14.7 ± 1.1 g/dl) on the fifth day post-saturation (12.8 ± 1.8 g/dl, p = 0.028), before reverting to normal after 6–7 days. At the end of the 12-day post-saturation period, Hb was not statistically different from the pre-saturation baseline. The observed Hb changes, although significant, were modest. While we cannot rule out effect of other factors, the presence of mild anemia may partially explain the transient fatigue that commercial saturation divers experience post-saturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian Łuczyński
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jacky Lautridou
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Astrid Hjelde
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Roxane Monnoyer
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ingrid Eftedal
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.,Faculty of Nursing and Health Sciences, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
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Yuan Y, Zhao G, Ji H, Peng B, Huang Z, Jin W, Chen X, Guan H, Tang G, Zhang H, Jiang Z. Changes in the gut microbiota during and after commercial helium–oxygen saturation diving in China. Occup Environ Med 2019; 76:801-807. [DOI: 10.1136/oemed-2019-106031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
ObjectivesThe influence of commercial helium–oxygen saturation diving on divers’ gut microbiotas was assessed to provide dietary suggestion.MethodsFaecal samples of 47 divers working offshore were collected before (T1), during (T2) and after (T3) saturation diving. Their living and excursion depths were 55–134 metres underwater with a saturation duration of 12–31 days and PaO2 of 38–65 kPa. The faecal samples were examined through 16S ribosomal DNA amplicon sequencing based on the Illumina sequencing platform to analyse changes in the bacteria composition in the divers’ guts.ResultsAlthough the α and β diversity of the gut microbiota did not change significantly, we found that living in a hyperbaric environment of helium–oxygen saturation decreased the abundance of the genus Bifidobacterium, an obligate anaerobe, from 2.43%±3.83% at T1 to 0.79%±1.23% at T2 and 0.59%±0.79% at T3. Additionally, the abundance of some short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing bacteria, such as Fusicatenibacter, Faecalibacterium, rectale group and Anaerostipes, showed a decreased trend in the order of before, during and after diving. On the contrary, the abundance of species, such as Lactococcus garvieae, Actinomyces odontolyticus, Peptoclostridium difficile, Butyricimonas virosa, Streptococcus mutans, Porphyromonas asaccharolytica and A. graevenitzii, showed an increasing trend, but most of them were pathogens.ConclusionsOccupational exposure to high pressure in a helium–oxygen saturation environment decreased the abundance of Bifidobacterium and some SCFA-producing bacteria, and increased the risk of pathogenic bacterial infection. Supplementation of the diver diet with probiotics or prebiotics during saturation diving might prevent these undesirable changes.
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Imbert JP, Egi SM, Germonpré P, Balestra C. Static Metabolic Bubbles as Precursors of Vascular Gas Emboli During Divers' Decompression: A Hypothesis Explaining Bubbling Variability. Front Physiol 2019; 10:807. [PMID: 31354506 PMCID: PMC6638188 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction The risk for decompression sickness (DCS) after hyperbaric exposures (such as SCUBA diving) has been linked to the presence and quantity of vascular gas emboli (VGE) after surfacing from the dive. These VGE can be semi-quantified by ultrasound Doppler and quantified via precordial echocardiography. However, for an identical dive, VGE monitoring of divers shows variations related to individual susceptibility, and, for a same diver, dive-to-dive variations which may be influenced by pre-dive pre-conditioning. These variations are not explained by currently used algorithms. In this paper, we present a new hypothesis: individual metabolic processes, through the oxygen window (OW) or Inherent Unsaturation of tissues, modulate the presence and volume of static metabolic bubbles (SMB) that in turn act as precursors of circulating VGE after a dive. Methods We derive a coherent system of assumptions to describe static gas bubbles, located on the vessel endothelium at hydrophobic sites, that would be activated during decompression and become the source of VGE. We first refer to the OW and show that it creates a local tissue unsaturation that can generate and stabilize static gas phases in the diver at the surface. We then use Non-extensive thermodynamics to derive an equilibrium equation that avoids any geometrical description. The final equation links the SMB volume directly to the metabolism. Results and Discussion Our model introduces a stable population of small gas pockets of an intermediate size between the nanobubbles nucleating on the active sites and the VGE detected in the venous blood. The resulting equation, when checked against our own previously published data and the relevant scientific literature, supports both individual variation and the induced differences observed in pre-conditioning experiments. It also explains the variability in VGE counts based on age, fitness, type and frequency of physical activities. Finally, it fits into the general scheme of the arterial bubble assumption for the description of the DCS risk. Conclusion Metabolism characterization of the pre-dive SMB population opens new possibilities for decompression algorithms by considering the diver's individual susceptibility and recent history (life style, exercise) to predict the level of VGE during and after decompression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Salih Murat Egi
- Department of Computer Engineering, Galatasaray University, Istanbul, Turkey.,DAN Europe Research Division, Divers Alert Network (DAN), Roseto, Italy
| | - Peter Germonpré
- DAN Europe Research Division, Divers Alert Network (DAN), Roseto, Italy.,Centre for Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy, Military Hospital Brussels, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Costantino Balestra
- DAN Europe Research Division, Divers Alert Network (DAN), Roseto, Italy.,Environmental, Occupational and Ageing Physiology Laboratory, Haute Ecole Bruxelles-Brabant (HE2B), Brussels, Belgium
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Kiboub FZ, Møllerløkken A, Hjelde A, Flatberg A, Loennechen Ø, Eftedal I. Blood Gene Expression and Vascular Function Biomarkers in Professional Saturation Diving. Front Physiol 2018; 9:937. [PMID: 30061845 PMCID: PMC6054983 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Saturation diving is an established way to conduct subsea operations with human intervention. While working, the divers must acclimatize to the hyperbaric environments. In this study, genome-wide gene expression and selected plasma biomarkers for vascular function were investigated. We also examined whether antioxidant vitamin supplements affected the outcome. The study included 20 male professional divers, 13 of whom took vitamin C and E supplements in doses of 1,000 and 30 mg daily during saturation periods that lasted 7-14 days. The dives were done in a heliox atmosphere with 40 kPa oxygen partial pressure (ppO2) to a depth of 100-115 m of sea-water (msw), from which the divers performed in-water work excursions to a maximum depth of 125 msw with 60 kPa ppO2. Venous blood was collected immediately before and after saturation. Following gene expression profiling, post-saturation gene activity changes were analyzed. Protein biomarkers for inflammation, endothelial function, and fibrinolysis: Il-6, CRP, ICAM-1, fibrinogen, and PAI-1, were measured in plasma. Post-saturation gene expression changes indicated acclimatization to elevated ppO2 by extensive downregulation of factors involved in oxygen transport, including heme, hemoglobin, and erythrocytes. Primary endogenous antioxidants; superoxide dismutase 1, catalase, and glutathione synthetase, were upregulated, and there was increased expression of genes involved in immune activity and inflammatory signaling pathways. The antioxidant vitamin supplements had no effect on post-saturation gene expression profiles or vascular function biomarkers, implying that the divers preserved their homeostasis through endogenous antioxidant defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Z. Kiboub
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- TechnipFMC, Stavanger, Norway
| | - Andreas Møllerløkken
- Institute of Aviation Medicine, Norwegian Defense Medical Services, Oslo, Norway
| | - Astrid Hjelde
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Arnar Flatberg
- Microarray Core Facility, Department of Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | | | - Ingrid Eftedal
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Faculty of Nursing and Health Sciences, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
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Brugniaux JV, Coombs GB, Barak OF, Dujic Z, Sekhon MS, Ainslie PN. Highs and lows of hyperoxia: physiological, performance, and clinical aspects. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2018; 315:R1-R27. [PMID: 29488785 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00165.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Molecular oxygen (O2) is a vital element in human survival and plays a major role in a diverse range of biological and physiological processes. Although normobaric hyperoxia can increase arterial oxygen content ([Formula: see text]), it also causes vasoconstriction and hence reduces O2 delivery in various vascular beds, including the heart, skeletal muscle, and brain. Thus, a seemingly paradoxical situation exists in which the administration of oxygen may place tissues at increased risk of hypoxic stress. Nevertheless, with various degrees of effectiveness, and not without consequences, supplemental oxygen is used clinically in an attempt to correct tissue hypoxia (e.g., brain ischemia, traumatic brain injury, carbon monoxide poisoning, etc.) and chronic hypoxemia (e.g., severe COPD, etc.) and to help with wound healing, necrosis, or reperfusion injuries (e.g., compromised grafts). Hyperoxia has also been used liberally by athletes in a belief that it offers performance-enhancing benefits; such benefits also extend to hypoxemic patients both at rest and during rehabilitation. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the effects of hyperoxia in humans from the "bench to bedside." The first section will focus on the basic physiological principles of partial pressure of arterial O2, [Formula: see text], and barometric pressure and how these changes lead to variation in regional O2 delivery. This review provides an overview of the evidence for and against the use of hyperoxia as an aid to enhance physical performance. The final section addresses pathophysiological concepts, clinical studies, and implications for therapy. The potential of O2 toxicity and future research directions are also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Geoff B Coombs
- Centre for Heart, Lung, and Vascular Health, University of British Columbia , Kelowna, British Columbia , Canada
| | - Otto F Barak
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia.,Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Zeljko Dujic
- Department of Integrative Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Split , Split , Croatia
| | - Mypinder S Sekhon
- Centre for Heart, Lung, and Vascular Health, University of British Columbia , Kelowna, British Columbia , Canada.,Division of Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vancouver General Hospital, University of British Columbia , Vancouver, British Columbia , Canada
| | - Philip N Ainslie
- Centre for Heart, Lung, and Vascular Health, University of British Columbia , Kelowna, British Columbia , Canada
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Crow BT, Matthay EC, Schatz SP, Debeliso MD, Nuckton TJ. The Body Mass Index of San Francisco Cold-water Swimmers: Comparisons to U.S. National and Local Populations, and Pool Swimmers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXERCISE SCIENCE 2017; 10:1250-1262. [PMID: 29399251 PMCID: PMC5786195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
To determine if cold-water swimmers have substantial differences in BMI, which might have a protective effect against heat loss during swims in cold water without wetsuits, and to determine if obesity is more or less prevalent in cold-water swimmers, we compared the body mass index (BMI) values of 103 recreational open-water swimmers (mean age 54.3 ±10.8 years) to data from various population groups. Swimmers swam consistently throughout the winter months, in the San Francisco Bay (water temperature range: 9.6° C [49.3 ° F] to 12.6° C [54.7 ° F]), without wetsuits. After matching for age and sex, the average BMI of cold-water swimmers (25.9 kg/m2) was lower than the corresponding predicted U.S. average BMI (29.2 kg/m2; p<.001), the predicted California state average BMI (28.0 kg/m2; p<.001), and the predicted San Francisco city average BMI (26.6 kg/m2; p=.047). The average BMI value for cold-water swimmers (25.9 kg/m2) was not significantly different from values of North American masters pool swimmers (25.1 kg/m2; p=.15) or international masters pool swimmers (25.3 kg/m2; p=.16). 10.7% of cold-water swimmers were classified as obese (BMI > 30 kg/m2) vs. 35.7%, 25.8%, and 11.8% of the U.S., California, and San Francisco populations, respectively. The lower or similar BMI values of our swimmers suggest that successful recreational swimming in cold water is influenced by factors other than body habitus, such as acclimatization, heat production while swimming, and most importantly, limiting immersion time. The relatively low prevalence of obesity in our swimmers suggests that cold-water swimming could contribute to a healthy lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan T Crow
- Department of Sciences, Mathematics and Biotechnology, University of California Berkeley Extension, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Ellicott C Matthay
- Division of Epidemiology, University of California Berkeley School of Public Health, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Mark D Debeliso
- Department of Kinesiology and Outdoor Recreation, Southern Utah University, Cedar City, UT, USA
| | - Thomas J Nuckton
- Departments of Medicine, California Pacific Medical Center and University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
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