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Zinßmeister D, Leibovitch M, Natan E, Turjeman S, Koren O, Travisano M, Vortman Y, Baselga-Cervera B. Detecting life by behavior, the overlooked sensitivity of behavioral assays. Sci Rep 2024; 14:18904. [PMID: 39143360 PMCID: PMC11324786 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-69942-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 08/12/2024] [Indexed: 08/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Detecting life has driven research and exploration for centuries, but recent attempts to compile and generate a framework that summarizes life features, aimed to develop strategies for life detection missions beyond planet Earth, have disregarded a key life feature: behavior. Yet, some behaviors such as biomineralization or motility have occasionally been proposed as biosignatures to detect life. Here, we capitalize on a specific taxis' motility behavior, magnetotaxis, to experimentally provide insights in support of behavior as an unambiguous, sensitive biosignature, and magnetic forces as a prescreening option. Using a magnetotactic bacterial species, Magnetospirillum magneticum, we conducted a lab sensitivity experiment comparing PCR with the hanging drop behavioral assay, using a dilution series. The hanging drop behavioral assay visually shows the motility of MTB toward magnetic poles. Our findings reveal that the behavioral assay exhibits higher sensitivity in the detection of M. magneticum when compared to the established PCR protocol. While both methods present similar detection sensitivities at high concentrations, at ≥ 10-7 fold dilutions, the behavioral method proved more sensitive. The behavioral method can detect bacteria even when samples are diluted at 10-9. Comparable results were obtained with environmental samples from the Hula Valley. We propose behavioral cues as valuable biosignatures in the ongoing efforts of life detection in unexplored aquatic habitats on Earth and to stimulate and support discussions about how to detect extant life beyond Earth. Generic and robust behavioral assays can represent a methodological revolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Zinßmeister
- Hula Research Center, Department of Animal Sciences, Tel-Hai Academic College, Tel Hai, Israel
| | - Moshe Leibovitch
- Hula Research Center, Department of Biotechnology, Tel-Hai Academic College, Tel Hai, Israel
| | | | - Sondra Turjeman
- Azrieli Faculty of Medicine, Bar-Ilan University, Safed, Israel
| | - Omry Koren
- Azrieli Faculty of Medicine, Bar-Ilan University, Safed, Israel
| | - Michael Travisano
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA
- Minnesota Center for Philosophy of Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- The BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA
| | - Yoni Vortman
- Hula Research Center, Department of Animal Sciences, Tel-Hai Academic College, Tel Hai, Israel
- MIGAL-Galilee Research Institute, 11016, Kiryat Shmona, Israel
| | - Beatriz Baselga-Cervera
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA.
- Minnesota Center for Philosophy of Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
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Fitak RR. The magneto-microbiome: A dataset of the metagenomic distribution of magnetotactic bacteria. Data Brief 2024; 53:110073. [PMID: 38317726 PMCID: PMC10838685 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2024.110073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 12/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) are diverse prokaryotes characterized by their ability to generate biogenic magnetic iron crystals. MTB are ubiquitous across aquatic environments, and growing evidence has indicated they may be present in association with animal microbiomes. Unfortunately, they are difficult to culture in vitro and more studies understanding their biogeographical distribution and ecological roles are needed. To provide data regarding the patterns of diversity and distribution of MTB, we screened the entire Sequence Read Archive (SRA) from the National Center for Biotechnology Information for DNA sequencing reads matching known MTB taxa. The dataset summarizes the count of reads assigned to MTB from more than 26 million SRA accessions comprising approximately 80 petabases (7.98 × 1016) of DNA. More than 396 million DNA sequencing reads were assigned to 214 MTB taxa in 691,086 (2.65 %) SRA accessions. The final dataset can be utilized by researchers to narrow their efforts in examination of both environmental and ecological roles of specific MTB or to identify potential host organisms. These data will be instrumental to further elucidating the importance and utility of these enigmatic bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert R. Fitak
- Department of Biology, Genomics and Bioinformatics Cluster, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA
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Maroudas‐Sklare N, Kolodny Y, Yochelis S, Keren N, Paltiel Y. Controlling photosynthetic energy conversion by small conformational changes. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2022; 174:e13802. [PMID: 36259916 PMCID: PMC9828261 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.13802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Control phenomena in biology usually refer to changes in gene expression and protein translation and modification. In this paper, another mode of regulation is highlighted; we propose that photosynthetic organisms can harness the interplay between localization and delocalization of energy transfer by utilizing small conformational changes in the structure of light-harvesting complexes. We examine the mechanism of energy transfer in photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes, first through the scope of theoretical work and then by in vitro studies of these complexes. Next, the biological relevance to evolutionary fitness of this localization-delocalization switch is explored by in vivo experiments on desert crust and marine cyanobacteria, which are both exposed to rapidly changing environmental conditions. These examples demonstrate the flexibility and low energy cost of this mechanism, making it a competitive survival strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naama Maroudas‐Sklare
- Department of Applied PhysicsHebrew University of JerusalemJerusalemIsrael
- Department of Plant & Environmental Sciences, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life SciencesHebrew University of JerusalemJerusalemIsrael
| | - Yuval Kolodny
- Department of Applied PhysicsHebrew University of JerusalemJerusalemIsrael
| | - Shira Yochelis
- Department of Applied PhysicsHebrew University of JerusalemJerusalemIsrael
| | - Nir Keren
- Department of Plant & Environmental Sciences, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life SciencesHebrew University of JerusalemJerusalemIsrael
| | - Yossi Paltiel
- Department of Applied PhysicsHebrew University of JerusalemJerusalemIsrael
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Yoshida M, Motokawa M, Endo H. Osteological and vascular morphology and electrolyte homeostasis of sea turtles. J Vet Med Sci 2022; 84:1001-1009. [PMID: 35650112 PMCID: PMC9353092 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.21-0624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sea turtles have well developed lacrimal glands for their electrolyte homeostasis. In turtles, stapedial artery and palatine artery send branches to supply orbital region, but supply artery
for lacrimal glands was not identified. Micro-CT scans showed dorsoventrally large lacrimal glands of sea turtle are supplied by both stapedial artery and palatine artery. The circulatory
pattern in cranial region was reconstructed based on the micro-CT scans, showing that sea turtle has basically similar pattern with the common snapping turtle: stapedial artery supplies
orbital region and mandibular artery is ramified from stapedial artery. We also investigate the foramen stapedio-temporalis in turtles using osteological specimens. The
foramen stapedio-temporalis, where the stapedial artery passes through, has different size among four families of turtles. We compared the sum of cross sections of left
and right foramen stapedio-temporalis since homeostasis of one individual is maintained by a pair of lacrimal glands. The size difference may reflect primarily the share of
stapedial artery against palatine artery in cranial circulation pattern and blood supply of orbital regions. Our observations confirmed a significantly larger cross-section in the
foramen stapedio-temporalis of sea turtles than other freshwater/terrestrial turtles. Since the circulatory pattern is shared, the size difference of foramen
stapedio-temporalis reflects the amount of arterial blood supply to lacrimal glands. Therefore, the size of the foramen stapedio-temporalis may indicate marine
adaptation of turtles and are applicable to both fossil and osteological specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masataka Yoshida
- The University Museum, The University of Tokyo.,Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Sciences, The University of Tokyo
| | | | - Hideki Endo
- The University Museum, The University of Tokyo
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Magnetotactic bacteria and magnetofossils: ecology, evolution and environmental implications. NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes 2022; 8:43. [PMID: 35650214 PMCID: PMC9160268 DOI: 10.1038/s41522-022-00304-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) are a group of phylogenetically diverse and morphologically varied microorganisms with a magnetoresponsive capability called magnetotaxis or microbial magnetoreception. MTB are a distinctive constituent of the microbiome of aquatic ecosystems because they use Earth's magnetic field to align themselves in a north or south facing direction and efficiently navigate to their favored microenvironments. They have been identified worldwide from diverse aquatic and waterlogged microbiomes, including freshwater, saline, brackish and marine ecosystems, and some extreme environments. MTB play important roles in the biogeochemical cycling of iron, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon and nitrogen in nature and have been recognized from in vitro cultures to sequester heavy metals like selenium, cadmium, and tellurium, which makes them prospective candidate organisms for aquatic pollution bioremediation. The role of MTB in environmental systems is not limited to their lifespan; after death, fossil magnetosomal magnetic nanoparticles (known as magnetofossils) are a promising proxy for recording paleoenvironmental change and geomagnetic field history. Here, we summarize the ecology, evolution, and environmental function of MTB and the paleoenvironmental implications of magnetofossils in light of recent discoveries.
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Liu T, Da H, Zhang S, Wang W, Pan H, Yan L. Magnetotactic bacteria in vertical sediments of volcanic lakes in NE China appear Alphaproteobacteria dominated distribution regardless of waterbody types. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 38:76. [PMID: 35304669 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-022-03262-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) distribute widely in sediment habitats and play critical roles in iron cycling. Here, the vertical distribution of morphology and phylogenetic diversity of MTB in sediments (0-15 cm) of three lakes (open waterbody, Bailonghu, BL; semi-enclosed waterbody, Yaoquanhu, YQ; enclosed waterbody, Yueyapao, YY) in Wudalianchi volcanic field (China) were investigated. TEM showed the appearance of coccoid, rod-shaped, oval-shaped, and arc-shaped MTB. With the increase of BL sediment depth, the number of rod-shaped and spherical MTB decreased and increased, respectively. High-throughput sequencing indicated that Alphaproteobacterial MTB dominantly thrived in these lakes regardless of waterbody types. In BL and YY, the dominant genus was Magnetospirillum (44.99-70.80%) which showed a peak in the middle layer. In YQ, the genus Magnetospira was dominant in the upper (52.36%) and middle (66.56%) layer and Magnetococcus (69.63%) existed dominantly in the bottom layer. The vertical distribution of MTB in sediments of these lakes decreased first and then increased. Functional analysis showed that ABC transporter and two-component system of MTB changed significantly with the sediment depth. RDA indicated that the distribution of Magnetospirillum was positively associated with sulfide, pH, and TC. These findings will expand our knowledge of the vertical distribution of MTB in volcanic lakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Liu
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Microbiology and Recycling of Argo-Waste in Cold Region, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, People's Republic of China
| | - Huiyun Da
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Microbiology and Recycling of Argo-Waste in Cold Region, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuang Zhang
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Microbiology and Recycling of Argo-Waste in Cold Region, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, People's Republic of China
| | - Weidong Wang
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Microbiology and Recycling of Argo-Waste in Cold Region, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, People's Republic of China.,Engineering Research Center of Processing and Utilization of Grain By-Products, Ministry of Education, Daqing, 163319, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong Pan
- Institute of Natural Resources and Ecology, Heilongjiang Academy of Science, Harbin, 150090, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Yan
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Microbiology and Recycling of Argo-Waste in Cold Region, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, People's Republic of China. .,Engineering Research Center of Processing and Utilization of Grain By-Products, Ministry of Education, Daqing, 163319, People's Republic of China.
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Antibiotics affect migratory restlessness orientation. J ETHOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10164-022-00747-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Orientational dynamics of magnetotactic bacteria in Earth's magnetic field-a simulation study. J Biol Phys 2021; 47:79-93. [PMID: 33687635 DOI: 10.1007/s10867-021-09566-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigate through simulations the phenomena of magnetoreception to enable an understanding of the minimum requirements of a fail-safe mechanism, operational at the cellular level, to sense a weak magnetic field at ambient temperature in a biologically active environment. To do this, we use magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) as our model system. The magnetic field sensing ability of these bacteria is due to the presence of magnetosomes, which are internal membrane-bound organelles that contain an iron-based magnetic mineral crystal. These magnetosomes are usually found arranged in a chain aligned with the long axis of the bacterial body. This arrangement yields an overall magnetic dipole moment to the bacterial cell. To simulate this orientation process, we set up a rotational Langevin stochastic differential equation and solve it repeatedly over appropriate time steps for isolated spherical shaped MTB as well as for a more realistic model of spheroidal MTB with flagella. The orientation process appears to depend on shape parameters with spheroidal MTB showing a slower response time compared to spherical MTB. Further, our simulation also reveals that the alignment to the external magnetic field is more robust for an MTB when compared to single magnetosome. For the simulation involving magnetosomes, we include an extra torque that arises from the twisting of an attachment tether and enhance the viscosity of the surrounding medium to mimic intracellular conditions in the governing Langevin equation. The response time of alignment is found to be substantially reduced when one includes a dipole interaction term with a neighboring magnetosome and the alignment becomes less robust with increase in inter dipole distance. The alignment process can thereby be said to be very sensitively dependent on the distance between magnetosomes. Simulating the process of alignment between two neighboring magnetosomes, both in the absence and presence of an ambient magnetic field, we conclude that alignment between these dipoles at the distances typical in an MTB is highly probable and it would be the locked unit that responds to changes in the external magnetic field.
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Natan E, Fitak RR, Werber Y, Vortman Y. Symbiotic magnetic sensing: raising evidence and beyond. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20190595. [PMID: 32772668 PMCID: PMC7435164 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The identity of a magnetic sensor in animals remains enigmatic. Although the use of the geomagnetic field for orientation and navigation in animals across a broad taxonomic range has been well established over the past five decades, the identity of the magnetic-sensing organ and its structure and/or apparatus within such animals remains elusive-'a sense without a receptor'. Recently, we proposed that symbiotic magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) may serve as the underlying mechanism behind a magnetic sense in animals-'the symbiotic magnetic-sensing hypothesis'. Since we first presented this hypothesis, both criticism and support have been raised accordingly. Here we address the primary criticisms and discuss the plausibility of such a symbiosis, supported by preliminary findings demonstrating the ubiquity of MTB DNA in general, and specifically in animal samples. We also refer to new supporting findings, and discuss host adaptations that could be driven by such a symbiosis. Finally, we suggest the future research directions required to confirm or refute the possibility of symbiotic magnetic-sensing. This article is part of the theme issue 'The role of the microbiome in host evolution'.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert Rodgers Fitak
- Department of Biology; Genomics and Bioinformatics Cluster, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA
| | - Yuval Werber
- Department of Biotechnology, Tel Hai Academic College, Upper Galilee, 1220800, Israel
| | - Yoni Vortman
- Department of Animal Sciences, Hula Research Center, Tel Hai Academic College, Upper Galilee, 1220800, Israel
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Mansor M, Xu J. Benefits at the nanoscale: a review of nanoparticle-enabled processes favouring microbial growth and functionality. Environ Microbiol 2020; 22:3633-3649. [PMID: 32705763 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.15174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Nanoparticles are ubiquitous and co-occur with microbial life in every environment on Earth. Interactions between microbes and nanoparticles impact the biogeochemical cycles via accelerating various reaction rates and enabling biological processes at the smallest scales. Distinct from microbe-mineral interactions at large, microbe-nanoparticle interactions may involve higher levels of active recognition and utilization of the reactive, changeable, and thereby 'moldable' nano-sized inorganic phases by microbes, which has been given minimal attention in previous reviews. Here we have compiled the various cases of microbe-nanoparticle interactions with clear and potential benefits to the microbial cells and communities. Specifically, we discussed (i) the high bioavailabilities of nanoparticles due to increased specific surface areas and size-dependent solubility, with a focus on environmentally-relevant iron(III) (oxyhydr)oxides and pyrite, (ii) microbial utilization of nanoparticles as 'nano-tools' for electron transfer, chemotaxis, and storage units, and (iii) speculated benefits of precipitating 'moldable' nanoparticles in extracellular biomineralization. We further discussed emergent questions concerning cellular level responses to nanoparticle-associated cues, and the factors that affect nanoparticles' bioavailabilities beyond size-dependent effects. We end the review by proposing a framework towards more quantitative approaches and by highlighting promising techniques to guide future research in this exciting field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muammar Mansor
- Geomicrobiology, Center for Applied Geoscience, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Jie Xu
- Department of Geological Sciences, the University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, 79968, USA
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Albert L, Deschamps F, Jolivet A, Olivier F, Chauvaud L, Chauvaud S. A current synthesis on the effects of electric and magnetic fields emitted by submarine power cables on invertebrates. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 159:104958. [PMID: 32662447 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.104958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The goal of clean renewable energy production has promoted the large-scale deployment of marine renewable energy devices, and their associated submarine cable network. Power cables produce both electric and magnetic fields that raise environmental concerns as many marine organisms have magneto and electroreception abilities used for vital purposes. Magnetic and electric fields' intensities decrease with distance away from the cable. Accordingly, the benthic and the sedimentary compartments are exposed to the highest field values. Although marine invertebrate species are the major fauna of these potentially exposed areas, they have so far received little attention. We provide extensive background knowledge on natural and anthropogenic marine sources of magnetic and electric fields. We then compile evidence for magneto- and electro-sensitivity in marine invertebrates and further highlight what is currently known about their interactions with artificial sources of magnetic and electric fields. Finally we discuss the main gaps and future challenges that require further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luana Albert
- TBM Environnement, Porte Océane Bloc 03, 2 rue de Suède, 56400, Auray, France; Univ. Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, rue Dumont D'Urville, 29280, Plouzané, France.
| | - François Deschamps
- RTE, Immeuble Window, 7C place du Dôme, 92073, Paris La Défense Cedex, France.
| | - Aurélie Jolivet
- TBM Environnement, Porte Océane Bloc 03, 2 rue de Suède, 56400, Auray, France.
| | - Frédéric Olivier
- Biologie des Organismes et écosystèmes Aquatiques (BOREA, UMR 7208), MNHN/SU/UNICAEN/UA/CNRS/IRD, 61 Rue Buffon CP53, 75005, Paris, France; Station Marine de Concarneau, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Place de la Croix, BP 225, 29182, Concarneau Cedex, France.
| | - Laurent Chauvaud
- Univ. Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, rue Dumont D'Urville, 29280, Plouzané, France.
| | - Sylvain Chauvaud
- TBM Environnement, Porte Océane Bloc 03, 2 rue de Suède, 56400, Auray, France.
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Magnetoreception in Microorganisms. Trends Microbiol 2019; 28:266-275. [PMID: 31753537 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2019.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2019] [Revised: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Magnetoreception is the sense whereby organisms geolocate and navigate in response to the Earth's magnetic field lines. For decades, magnetotactic bacteria have been the only known magnetoreceptive microorganisms. The magnetotactic behaviour of these aquatic prokaryotes is due to the biomineralization of magnetic crystals. While an old report alleged the existence of microbial algae with similar behaviour, recent discoveries have demonstrated the existence of unicellular eukaryotes able to sense the geomagnetic field, and have revealed different mechanisms and strategies involved in such a sensing. Some ciliates can be magnetically guided after predation of magnetotactic bacteria, while some flagellates acquired this sense through symbiosis with magnetic bacteria. A report has even suggested that some magnetotactic protists could biomineralize magnetic crystals.
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