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Abarca-Merlin DM, Martínez-Durán JA, Medina-Pérez JD, Rodríguez-Santos G, Alvarez-Arellano L. From Immunity to Neurogenesis: Toll-like Receptors as Versatile Regulators in the Nervous System. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5711. [PMID: 38891900 PMCID: PMC11171594 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25115711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are among the main components of the innate immune system. They can detect conserved structures in microorganisms and molecules associated with stress and cellular damage. TLRs are expressed in resident immune cells and both neurons and glial cells of the nervous system. Increasing evidence is emerging on the participation of TLRs not only in the immune response but also in processes of the nervous system, such as neurogenesis and cognition. Below, we present a review of the literature that evaluates the expression and role of TLRs in processes such as neurodevelopment, behavior, cognition, infection, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Melissa Abarca-Merlin
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Neurociencias, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, Av. Dr. Márquez 162. Colonia Doctores, Mexico City 06720, Mexico; (D.M.A.-M.)
| | - J. Abigail Martínez-Durán
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Neurociencias, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, Av. Dr. Márquez 162. Colonia Doctores, Mexico City 06720, Mexico; (D.M.A.-M.)
| | - J. David Medina-Pérez
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Neurociencias, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, Av. Dr. Márquez 162. Colonia Doctores, Mexico City 06720, Mexico; (D.M.A.-M.)
| | - Guadalupe Rodríguez-Santos
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Neurociencias, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, Av. Dr. Márquez 162. Colonia Doctores, Mexico City 06720, Mexico; (D.M.A.-M.)
| | - Lourdes Alvarez-Arellano
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Neurociencias, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, Av. Dr. Márquez 162. Colonia Doctores, Mexico City 06720, Mexico; (D.M.A.-M.)
- CONAHCYT-Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, Mexico City 06720, Mexico
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Hodgson L, Li Y, Iturria-Medina Y, Stratton JA, Wolf G, Krishnaswamy S, Bennett DA, Bzdok D. Supervised latent factor modeling isolates cell-type-specific transcriptomic modules that underlie Alzheimer's disease progression. Commun Biol 2024; 7:591. [PMID: 38760483 PMCID: PMC11101463 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06273-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Late onset Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, with brain changes beginning years before symptoms surface. AD is characterized by neuronal loss, the classic feature of the disease that underlies brain atrophy. However, GWAS reports and recent single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) efforts have highlighted that glial cells, particularly microglia, claim a central role in AD pathophysiology. Here, we tailor pattern-learning algorithms to explore distinct gene programs by integrating the entire transcriptome, yielding distributed AD-predictive modules within the brain's major cell-types. We show that these learned modules are biologically meaningful through the identification of new and relevant enriched signaling cascades. The predictive nature of our modules, especially in microglia, allows us to infer each subject's progression along a disease pseudo-trajectory, confirmed by post-mortem pathological brain tissue markers. Additionally, we quantify the interplay between pairs of cell-type modules in the AD brain, and localized known AD risk genes to enriched module gene programs. Our collective findings advocate for a transition from cell-type-specificity to gene modules specificity to unlock the potential of unique gene programs, recasting the roles of recently reported genome-wide AD risk loci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liam Hodgson
- School of Computer Science, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Mila - Quebec Artificial Intelligence Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Yue Li
- School of Computer Science, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Yasser Iturria-Medina
- McConnell Brain Imaging Centre (BIC), MNI, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, Canada
- Neurology and Neurosurgery Department, Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI), Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, Canada
- Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics and Mental Health, McGill University, Montréal, Canada
| | - Jo Anne Stratton
- Neurology and Neurosurgery Department, Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI), Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, Canada
| | - Guy Wolf
- Mila - Quebec Artificial Intelligence Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Department of Mathematics & Statistics, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada
| | - Smita Krishnaswamy
- Department of Computer Science, Department of Genetics, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - David A Bennett
- Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Danilo Bzdok
- Mila - Quebec Artificial Intelligence Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada.
- The Neuro - Montréal Neurological Institute, McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada.
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3
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McGurran H, Kumbol V, Krüger C, Wallach T, Lehnardt S. miR-154-5p Is a Novel Endogenous Ligand for TLR7 Inducing Microglial Activation and Neuronal Injury. Cells 2024; 13:407. [PMID: 38474371 DOI: 10.3390/cells13050407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a collection of pattern recognition sensors that form a first line of defence by detecting pathogen- or damage-associated molecular patterns and initiating an inflammatory response. TLR activation in microglia, the major immune cells in the brain, can trigger the release of inflammatory molecules, which may contribute to various CNS diseases including Alzheimer's disease. Recently, some microRNAs were shown to serve as signalling molecules for TLRs. Here, we present miR-154-5p as a novel TLR7 ligand. Exposing microglia to miR-154-5p results in cytokine release and alters expression of the TLR signalling pathway dependent on TLR7. Additionally, miR-154-5p causes neuronal injury in enriched cortical neuron cultures and additive toxicity in the presence of microglia. Finally, intrathecal injection of miR-154-5p into mice leads to neuronal injury and accumulation of microglia in the cerebral cortex dependent on TLR7 expression. In conclusion, this study establishes miR-154-5p as a direct activator of TLR7 that can cause neuroinflammation and neuronal injury, which may contribute to CNS disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo McGurran
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Einstein Center for Neurosciences Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Victor Kumbol
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Einstein Center for Neurosciences Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christina Krüger
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Wallach
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Seija Lehnardt
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, 10117 Berlin, Germany
- Department of Neurology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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Ni J, Xie Z, Quan Z, Meng J, Qing H. How brain 'cleaners' fail: Mechanisms and therapeutic value of microglial phagocytosis in Alzheimer's disease. Glia 2024; 72:227-244. [PMID: 37650384 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
Microglia are the resident phagocytes of the brain, where they primarily function in the clearance of dead cells and the removal of un- or misfolded proteins. The impaired activity of receptors or proteins involved in phagocytosis can result in enhanced inflammation and neurodegeneration. RNA-seq and genome-wide association studies have linked multiple phagocytosis-related genes to neurodegenerative diseases, while the knockout of such genes has been demonstrated to exert protective effects against neurodegeneration in animal models. The failure of microglial phagocytosis influences AD-linked pathologies, including amyloid β accumulation, tau propagation, neuroinflammation, and infection. However, a precise understanding of microglia-mediated phagocytosis in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is still lacking. In this review, we summarize current knowledge of the molecular mechanisms involved in microglial phagocytosis in AD across a wide range of pre-clinical, post-mortem, ex vivo, and clinical studies and review the current limitations regarding the detection of microglia phagocytosis in AD. Finally, we discuss the rationale of targeting microglial phagocytosis as a therapeutic strategy for preventing AD or slowing its progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjun Ni
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Zhen Xie
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Zhenzhen Quan
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Meng
- Department of Geriatrics, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Hong Qing
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
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Zhang XM, Huang J, Ni XY, Zhu HR, Huang ZX, Ding S, Yang XY, Tan YD, Chen JF, Cai JH. Current progression in application of extracellular vesicles in central nervous system diseases. Eur J Med Res 2024; 29:15. [PMID: 38173021 PMCID: PMC10763486 DOI: 10.1186/s40001-023-01606-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Early diagnosis and pharmacological treatment of central nervous system (CNS) diseases has been a long-standing challenge for clinical research due to the presence of the blood-brain barrier. Specific proteins and RNAs in brain-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) usually reflect the corresponding state of brain disease, and therefore, EVs can be used as diagnostic biomarkers for CNS diseases. In addition, EVs can be engineered and fused to target cells for delivery of cargo, demonstrating the great potential of EVs as a nanocarrier platform. We review the progress of EVs as markers and drug carriers in the diagnosis and treatment of neurological diseases. The main areas include visual imaging, biomarker diagnosis and drug loading therapy for different types of CNS diseases. It is hoped that increased knowledge of EVs will facilitate their clinical translation in CNS diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang-Min Zhang
- Department of Radiology Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center of Stem Cell Therapy, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China
| | - Jie Huang
- Department of Radiology Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center of Stem Cell Therapy, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China
| | - Xiao-Ying Ni
- Department of Radiology Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center of Stem Cell Therapy, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China
| | - Hui-Ru Zhu
- Department of Radiology Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center of Stem Cell Therapy, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China
| | - Zhong-Xin Huang
- Department of Radiology Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center of Stem Cell Therapy, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China
| | - Shuang Ding
- Department of Radiology Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center of Stem Cell Therapy, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China
| | - Xin-Yi Yang
- Department of Radiology Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center of Stem Cell Therapy, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China
| | - Yan-Di Tan
- Department of Ultrasound the Third Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No. 1, Shuanghu Branch Road, Huixing Street, Chongqing, 401120, China
| | - Jian-Fu Chen
- Department of Ultrasound, The Second People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, No. 176, Qingnian Road, Kunming, 650021, China
| | - Jin-Hua Cai
- Department of Radiology Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, No. 136, Zhongshan Second Road, Chongqing, 400014, China.
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Bobotis BC, Braniff O, Gargus M, Akinluyi ET, Awogbindin IO, Tremblay MÈ. Sex differences of microglia in the healthy brain from embryonic development to adulthood and across lifestyle influences. Brain Res Bull 2023; 202:110752. [PMID: 37652267 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2023.110752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Microglia, the central nervous system innate immune cells, play a critical role in maintaining a homeostatic environment in the brain throughout life. These cells exhibit an impressive range of functions and characteristics that help to ensure proper functioning of the brain. Notably, microglia can present differences in their genetic and physical traits, which can be influenced by a range of factors, including age, environmental exposures, disease, and sex. Remarkably, microglia have been found to express receptors for sex hormones, suggesting that these hormones may play a role in modulating microglial behavior and potentially contribute to sex differences. Additionally, sex-chromosomal factors were shown to impact microglial genetics and functioning. In this review, we will examine how microglial responses in homeostasis are impacted by their interaction with sex hormones and sex chromosomes. Specifically, our investigation will focus on examining this interaction from embryonic development to adulthood, and the influence of lifestyle elements on various microglial features, including density and distribution, morphology, transcriptome, and proteome.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Olivia Braniff
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Makenna Gargus
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Toyin Akinluyi
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada; Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
| | - Ifeoluwa Oluleke Awogbindin
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada; Neuroimmunology Group, Molecular Drug Metabolism and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Marie-Ève Tremblay
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada; Neurosciences Axis, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada; Department of Molecular Medicine, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada.
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Yao K, Mou Q, Lou X, Ye M, Zhao B, Hu Y, Luo J, Zhang H, Li X, Zhao Y. Microglial SIRT1 activation attenuates synapse loss in retinal inner plexiform layer via mTORC1 inhibition. J Neuroinflammation 2023; 20:202. [PMID: 37670386 PMCID: PMC10481494 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-023-02886-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Optic nerve injury (ONI) is a key cause of irreversible blindness and triggers retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) change and synapse loss. Microglia is the resistant immune cell in brain and retina and has been demonstrated to be highly related with neuron and synapse injury. However, the function of Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), a neuroprotective molecule, in mediating microglial activation, retinal synapse loss and subsequent retinal ganglion cells death in optic nerve injury model as well as the regulatory mechanism remain unclear. METHOD To this end, optic nerve crush (ONC) model was conducted to mimic optic nerve injury. Resveratrol and EX527, highly specific activator and inhibitor of SIRT1, respectively, were used to explore the function of SIRT1 in vivo and vitro. Cx3Cr1-CreERT2/RaptorF/F mice were used to delete Raptor for inhibiting mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) activity in microglia. HEK293 and BV2 cells were transfected with plasmids to explore the regulatory mechanism of SIRT1. RESULTS We discovered that microglial activation and synapse loss in retinal inner plexiform layer (IPL) occurred after optic nerve crush, with later-development retinal ganglion cells death. SIRT1 activation induced by resveratrol inhibited microglial activation and attenuated synapse loss and retinal ganglion cells injury. After injury, microglial phagocytosed synapse and SIRT1 inhibited this process to protect synapse and retinal ganglion cells. Moreover, SIRT1 exhibited neuron protective effects via activating tuberous sclerosis complex 2 (TSC2) through deacetylation, and enhancing the inhibition effect of tuberous sclerosis complex 2 on mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 activity. CONCLUSION Our research provides novel insights into microglial SIRT1 in optic nerve injury and suggests a potential strategy for neuroprotective treatment of optic nerve injury disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Yao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Qianxue Mou
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Xiaotong Lou
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Meng Ye
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Bowen Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Yuanyuan Hu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Jing Luo
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Center for Reproductive Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Xing Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China.
| | - Yin Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China.
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Tao JC, Yu D, Shao W, Zhou DR, Wang Y, Hou SQ, Deng K, Lin N. Interactions between microglia and glioma in tumor microenvironment. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1236268. [PMID: 37700840 PMCID: PMC10493873 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1236268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Gliomas, the most prevalent primary tumors in the central nervous system, are marked by their immunosuppressive properties and consequent poor patient prognosis. Current evidence emphasizes the pivotal role of the tumor microenvironment in the progression of gliomas, largely attributed to tumor-associated macrophages (brain-resident microglia and bone marrow-derived macrophages) that create a tumor microenvironment conducive to the growth and invasion of tumor cells. Yet, distinguishing between these two cell subgroups remains a challenge. Thus, our review starts by analyzing the heterogeneity between these two cell subsets, then places emphasis on elucidating the complex interactions between microglia and glioma cells. Finally, we conclude with a summary of current attempts at immunotherapy that target microglia. However, given that independent research on microglia is still in its initial stages and has many shortcomings at the present time, we express our related concerns and hope that further research will be carried out to address these issues in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Cheng Tao
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Dong Yu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Chuzhou Hospital of Anhui Medical University, The First People’s Hospital of Chuzhou, Chuzhou, Anhui, China
| | - Wei Shao
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Chuzhou Hospital of Anhui Medical University, The First People’s Hospital of Chuzhou, Chuzhou, Anhui, China
| | - Dong-Rui Zhou
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Chuzhou Hospital of Anhui Medical University, The First People’s Hospital of Chuzhou, Chuzhou, Anhui, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Chuzhou Hospital of Anhui Medical University, The First People’s Hospital of Chuzhou, Chuzhou, Anhui, China
| | - Shi-Qiang Hou
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Chuzhou Hospital of Anhui Medical University, The First People’s Hospital of Chuzhou, Chuzhou, Anhui, China
| | - Ke Deng
- Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ning Lin
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Chuzhou Hospital of Anhui Medical University, The First People’s Hospital of Chuzhou, Chuzhou, Anhui, China
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9
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Govindarajulu M, Patel MY, Wilder DM, Krishnan J, LaValle C, Pandya JD, Shear DA, Hefeneider SH, Long JB, Arun P. Upregulation of multiple toll-like receptors in ferret brain after blast exposure: potential targets for treatment. Neurosci Lett 2023; 810:137364. [PMID: 37391063 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2023.137364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2023]
Abstract
Although blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI) has been designated as the signature injury of recent combat operations, its precise pathological mechanism(s) has not been identified thus far. Prior preclinical studies on bTBI demonstrated acute neuroinflammatory cascades which are known to be contributing to neurodegeneration. Danger-associated chemical patterns are released from the injured cells, which activate non-specific pattern recognition receptors, such as toll-like receptors (TLRs) leading to increased expression of inflammatory genes and release of cytokines. Upregulation of specific TLRs in the brain has been described as a mechanism of injury in diverse brain injury models unrelated to blast exposure. However, the expression profile of various TLRs in bTBI has not been investigated thus far. Hence, we have evaluated the expression of transcripts for TLR1-TLR10 in the brain of a gyrencephalic animal model of bTBI. We exposed ferrets to tightly coupled repeated blasts and determined the differential expression of TLRs (TLR1-10) by quantitative RT-PCR in multiple brain regions at 4 hr, 24 hr, 7 days and 28 days post-blast injury. The results obtained indicate that multiple TLRs are upregulated in the brain at 4 hr, 24 hr, 7 days and 28 days post-blast. Specifically, upregulation of TLR2, TLR4 and TLR9 was noted in different brain regions, suggesting that multiple TLRs might play a role in the pathophysiology of bTBI and that drugs that can inhibit multiple TLRs might have enhanced efficacy to attenuate brain damage and thereby improve bTBI outcome. Taken together, these results suggest that several TLRs are upregulated in the brain after bTBI and participate in the inflammatory response and thereby provide new insights into the disease pathogenesis. Therefore, inhibition of multiple TLRs, including TLR2, 4 and 9, simultaneously might be a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of bTBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Govindarajulu
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Brain Trauma Neuroprotection and Neurorestoration Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Mital Y Patel
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Brain Trauma Neuroprotection and Neurorestoration Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Donna M Wilder
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Brain Trauma Neuroprotection and Neurorestoration Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Jishnu Krishnan
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Brain Trauma Neuroprotection and Neurorestoration Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Christina LaValle
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Brain Trauma Neuroprotection and Neurorestoration Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Jignesh D Pandya
- Brain Trauma Neuroprotection and Neurorestoration Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Deborah A Shear
- Brain Trauma Neuroprotection and Neurorestoration Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | | | - Joseph B Long
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Brain Trauma Neuroprotection and Neurorestoration Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Peethambaran Arun
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Brain Trauma Neuroprotection and Neurorestoration Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA.
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10
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Guo H, Jin W, Liu K, Liu S, Mao S, Zhou Z, Xie L, Wang G, Chen Y, Liang Y. Oral GSH Exerts a Therapeutic Effect on Experimental Salmonella Meningitis by Protecting BBB Integrity and Inhibiting Salmonella-induced Apoptosis. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2023; 18:112-126. [PMID: 36418663 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-022-10055-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial meningitis (BM) is the main cause of the central nervous system (CNS) infection and continues to be an important cause of mortality and morbidity. Glutathione (GSH), an endogenous tripeptide antioxidant, has been proved to exert crucial role in reducing superoxide radicals, hydroxyl radicals and peroxynitrites. The purpose of this study is to expand the application scope of GSH via exploring its therapeutic effect on BM caused by Salmonella typhimurium SL1344 and then provide a novel approach for the treatment of BM. The results suggested that intragastric administration of GSH could significantly increase median survival and improve experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis score of BM model mice. However, exogenous GSH did not affect the adhesion, invasion and cytotoxicity of SL1344 to C6, BV2 and primary microglia. Due to the contradiction between the therapeutic and bactericidal effects of GSH, the effect of GSH on blood-brain barrier (BBB) was investigated to explore its action target for the treatment of meningitis. GSH was found to repair the damage of BBB and then prevent the leakage of SL1344 from the brain to the blood circulation. The repaired BBB could also effectively reduce the entry of macrophages and neutrophils into the brain, and significantly reverse the microglia activation induced by SL1344. More importantly, exogenous GSH was proved to reduce mouse brain cell apoptosis by inhibiting the activation of caspase-8 followed by caspase-3, and reversing the up-regulation of ICAD and PARP-1 caused by SL1344.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huimin Guo
- Key Lab of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Tongjiaxiang 24, 210009, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Wei Jin
- Key Lab of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Tongjiaxiang 24, 210009, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Keanqi Liu
- Key Lab of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Tongjiaxiang 24, 210009, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Shijia Liu
- Key Lab of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Tongjiaxiang 24, 210009, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Shuying Mao
- Key Lab of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Tongjiaxiang 24, 210009, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Zhihao Zhou
- Key Lab of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Tongjiaxiang 24, 210009, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Lin Xie
- Key Lab of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Tongjiaxiang 24, 210009, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Guangji Wang
- Key Lab of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Tongjiaxiang 24, 210009, Nanjing, P.R. China.
| | - Yugen Chen
- Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, 155 Hanzhong Road, Qinhuai District, 210000, Nanjing, P.R. China.
| | - Yan Liang
- Key Lab of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Tongjiaxiang 24, 210009, Nanjing, P.R. China.
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11
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Rosiewicz KS, Muinjonov B, Kunz S, Radbruch H, Chen J, Jüttner R, Kerkering J, Ucar J, Crowley T, Wielockx B, Paul F, Alisch M, Siffrin V. HIF prolyl hydroxylase 2/3 deletion disrupts astrocytic integrity and exacerbates neuroinflammation. Glia 2023. [PMID: 37140003 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Astrocytes constitute the parenchymal border of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), modulate the exchange of soluble and cellular elements, and are essential for neuronal metabolic support. Thus, astrocytes critically influence neuronal network integrity. In hypoxia, astrocytes upregulate a transcriptional program that has been shown to boost neuroprotection in several models of neurological diseases. We investigated transgenic mice with astrocyte-specific activation of the hypoxia-response program by deleting the oxygen sensors, HIF prolyl-hydroxylase domains 2 and 3 (Phd2/3). We induced astrocytic Phd2/3 deletion after onset of clinical signs in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) that led to an exacerbation of the disease mediated by massive immune cell infiltration. We found that Phd2/3-ko astrocytes, though expressing a neuroprotective signature, exhibited a gradual loss of gap-junctional Connexin-43 (Cx43), which was induced by vascular endothelial growth factor-alpha (Vegf-a) expression. These results provide mechanistic insights into astrocyte biology, their critical role in hypoxic states, and in chronic inflammatory CNS diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamil Sebastian Rosiewicz
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center (ECRC), Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin und Max Delbrück Center or Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bakhrom Muinjonov
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center (ECRC), Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin und Max Delbrück Center or Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Séverine Kunz
- Technology Platform for Electron Microscopy, Max Delbrück Centre for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | - Helena Radbruch
- Department of Neuropathology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin., Berlin, Germany
| | - Jessy Chen
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center (ECRC), Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin und Max Delbrück Center or Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Neurology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin., Berlin, Germany
| | - René Jüttner
- Neuromuscular and Cardiovascular Cell Biology Group, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Janis Kerkering
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center (ECRC), Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin und Max Delbrück Center or Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Julia Ucar
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center (ECRC), Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin und Max Delbrück Center or Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Tadhg Crowley
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center (ECRC), Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin und Max Delbrück Center or Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ben Wielockx
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden., Dresden, Germany
| | - Friedemann Paul
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center (ECRC), Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin und Max Delbrück Center or Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marlen Alisch
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center (ECRC), Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin und Max Delbrück Center or Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Volker Siffrin
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center (ECRC), Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin und Max Delbrück Center or Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Neurology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin., Berlin, Germany
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12
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Reyes EY, Shinohara ML. Host immune responses in the central nervous system during fungal infections. Immunol Rev 2022; 311:50-74. [PMID: 35672656 PMCID: PMC9489659 DOI: 10.1111/imr.13101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Fungal infections in the central nervous system (CNS) cause high morbidity and mortality. The frequency of CNS mycosis has increased over the last two decades as more individuals go through immunocompromised conditions for various reasons. Nevertheless, options for clinical interventions for CNS mycoses are still limited. Thus, there is an urgent need to understand the host-pathogen interaction mechanisms in CNS mycoses for developing novel treatments. Although the CNS has been regarded as an immune-privileged site, recent studies demonstrate the critical involvement of immune responses elicited by CNS-resident and CNS-infiltrated cells during fungal infections. In this review, we discuss mechanisms of fungal invasion in the CNS, fungal pathogen detection by CNS-resident cells (microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, neurons), roles of CNS-infiltrated leukocytes, and host immune responses. We consider that understanding host immune responses in the CNS is crucial for endeavors to develop treatments for CNS mycosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Estefany Y. Reyes
- Department of Immunology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27705, USA
| | - Mari L. Shinohara
- Department of Immunology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27705, USA
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27705, USA
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13
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Squillace S, Salvemini D. Toll-like receptor-mediated neuroinflammation: relevance for cognitive dysfunctions. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2022; 43:726-739. [PMID: 35753845 PMCID: PMC9378500 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2022.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) with a well-documented role in the innate and adaptive immune responses. Interestingly, TLR activation has also been linked to several brain functions including neurogenesis and synaptogenesis. Increasing evidence supports TLR involvement in peripheral and central inflammation underlying normal aging and the pathogenesis of clinical conditions characterized by cognitive decline. These include not only major neurodegenerative diseases but also traumatic brain injuries, surgeries, and alcohol consumption- and chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairment. We first summarize the physiological roles of TLRs in the nervous system, and then illustrate the emerging involvement of TLRs in cognitive functions, pointing to these receptors as novel enticing pharmacological targets to develop more efficient drugs for the treatment of cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Squillace
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, and the Henry and Amelia Nasrallah Center for Neuroscience, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, 1402 South Grand Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63104, USA
| | - Daniela Salvemini
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, and the Henry and Amelia Nasrallah Center for Neuroscience, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, 1402 South Grand Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63104, USA.
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14
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Primary Cortical Cell Tri-Culture-Based Screening of Neuroinflammatory Response in Toll-like Receptor Activation. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10092122. [PMID: 36140221 PMCID: PMC9495748 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10092122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The activation of toll-like receptors (TLRs) in the central nervous system (CNS) can lead to neuroinflammation and contribute to many neurological disorders, including autoimmune diseases. Cell culture models are powerful tools for studying specific molecular and cellular mechanisms that contribute to these disease states and identifying potential therapeutics. However, most cell culture models have limitations in capturing biologically relevant phenomena, due in part to the non-inclusion of necessary cell types. Neurons, astrocytes, and microglia (critical cell types that play a role in neuroinflammation) all express at least a subset of TLRs. However, the response of each of these cell types to various TLR activation, along with their relative contribution to neuroinflammatory processes, is far from clear. In this study, we demonstrate the screening capabilities of a primary cortical cell tri-culture of neuron, astrocyte, and microglia from neonatal rats. Specifically, we compare the neuroinflammatory response of tri-cultures to that of primary neuron-astrocyte co-cultures to a suite of known TLR agonists. We demonstrate that microglia are required for observation of neurotoxic neuroinflammatory responses, such as increased cell death and apoptosis, in response to TLR2, 3, 4, and 7/8 activation. Additionally, we show that following TLR3 agonist treatment, microglia and astrocytes play opposing roles in the neuroinflammatory response, and that the observed response is dictated by the degree of TLR3 activation. Overall, we demonstrate that microglia play a significant role in the neuroinflammatory response to TLR activation in vitro and, hence, the tri-culture has the potential to serve as a screening platform that better replicates the in vivo responses.
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15
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Acioglu C, Heary RF, Elkabes S. Roles of neuronal toll-like receptors in neuropathic pain and central nervous system injuries and diseases. Brain Behav Immun 2022; 102:163-178. [PMID: 35176442 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2022.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are innate immune receptors that are expressed in immune cells as well as glia and neurons of the central and peripheral nervous systems. They are best known for their role in the host defense in response to pathogens and for the induction of inflammation in infectious and non-infectious diseases. In the central nervous system (CNS), TLRs modulate glial and neuronal functions as well as innate immunity and neuroinflammation under physiological or pathophysiological conditions. The majority of the studies on TLRs in CNS pathologies investigated their overall contribution without focusing on a particular cell type, or they analyzed TLRs in glia and infiltrating immune cells in the context of neuroinflammation and cellular activation. The role of neuronal TLRs in CNS diseases and injuries has received little attention and remains underappreciated. The primary goal of this review is to summarize findings demonstrating the pivotal and unique roles of neuronal TLRs in neuropathic pain, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and CNS injuries. We discuss how the current findings warrant future investigations to better define the specific contributions of neuronal TLRs to these pathologies. We underline the paucity of information regarding the role of neuronal TLRs in other neurodegenerative, demyelinating, and psychiatric diseases. We draw attention to the importance of broadening research on neuronal TLRs in view of emerging evidence demonstrating their distinctive functional properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cigdem Acioglu
- The Reynolds Family Spine Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ 07103, United States
| | - Robert F Heary
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Mountainside Medical Center, Montclair, NJ 07042, United States
| | - Stella Elkabes
- The Reynolds Family Spine Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ 07103, United States.
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16
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Lu L, Liu X, Fu J, Liang J, Hou Y, Dou H. sTREM-1 promotes the phagocytic function of microglia to induce hippocampus damage via the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway. Sci Rep 2022; 12:7047. [PMID: 35487953 PMCID: PMC9054830 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-10973-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 (sTREM-1) is a soluble form of TREM-1 released during inflammation. Elevated sTREM-1 levels have been found in neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus (NPSLE) patients; yet, the exact mechanisms remain unclear. This study investigated the role of sTREM-1 in brain damage and its underlying mechanism. The sTREM-1 recombinant protein (2.5 μg/3 μL) was injected into the lateral ventricle of C57BL/6 female mice. After intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection, the damage in hippocampal neurons increased, and the loss of neuronal synapses and activation of microglia increased compared to the control mice (treated with saline). In vitro. after sTREM-1 stimulation, the apoptosis of BV2 cells decreased, the polarization of BV2 cells shifted to the M1 phenotype, the phagocytic function of BV2 cells significantly improved, while the PI3K-AKT signal pathway was activated in vivo and in vitro. PI3K-AKT pathway inhibitor LY294002 reversed the excessive activation and phagocytosis of microglia caused by sTREM-1 in vivo and in vitro, which in turn improved the hippocampus damage. These results indicated that sTREM-1 activated the microglial by the PI3K-AKT signal pathway, and promoted its excessive phagocytosis of the neuronal synapse, thus inducing hippocampal damage. sTREM-1 might be a potential target for inducing brain lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Lu
- The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Immunology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, People's Republic of China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing, 210093, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuan Liu
- The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Immunology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, People's Republic of China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing, 210093, People's Republic of China
| | - Juanhua Fu
- The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Immunology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, People's Republic of China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing, 210093, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Liang
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, 210008, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yayi Hou
- The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Immunology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, People's Republic of China. .,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing, 210093, People's Republic of China.
| | - Huan Dou
- The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Immunology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, People's Republic of China. .,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing, 210093, People's Republic of China.
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17
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He X, Huang Y, Liu Y, Zhang X, Yue P, Ma X, Miao Z, Long X, Yang Y, Wan X, Lei J, Shu K, Lei T, Gan C, Zhang H. BAY61‑3606 attenuates neuroinflammation and neurofunctional damage by inhibiting microglial Mincle/Syk signaling response after traumatic brain injury. Int J Mol Med 2022; 49:5. [PMID: 34751408 PMCID: PMC8612304 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2021.5060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammatory processes mediated by microglial activation and subsequent neuronal damage are the hallmarks of traumatic brain injury (TBI). As an inhibitor of the macrophage‑inducible C‑type lectin (Mincle)/spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) signaling pathway, BAY61‑3606 (BAY) has previously demonstrated anti‑inflammatory effects on some pathological processes, such as acute kidney injury, by suppressing the inflammatory macrophage response. In the present study, the potential effects of BAY on microglial phenotype and neuroinflammation after TBI were investigated. BAY (3 mg/kg) was first administered into mice by intraperitoneal injection after TBI induction in vivo and microglia were also treated with BAY (2 µM) in vitro. The levels of inflammatory factors in microglia were assessed using reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and ELISA. Cortical neuron, myelin sheath, astrocyte and cerebrovascular endothelial cell markers were detected using immunofluorescence. The levels of components of the Mincle/Syk/NF‑κB signaling pathway [Mincle, phosphorylated (p)‑Syk and NF‑κB], in addition to proteins associated with inflammation (ASC, caspase‑1, TNF‑α, IL‑1β and IL‑6), apoptosis (Bax and Bim) and tight junctions (Claudin‑5), were measured via western blotting and ELISA. Migration and chemotaxis of microglial cells were evaluated using Transwell and agarose spot assays. Neurological functions of the mice were determined in vivo using the modified neurological severity scoring system and a Morris water maze. The results of the present study revealed that the expression levels of proteins in the Mincle/Syk/NF‑κB signaling pathway (including Mincle, p‑Syk and p‑NF‑κB), inflammatory cytokines (TNF‑α, IL‑1β and IL‑6), proteins involved in inflammation (ASC and caspase‑1), apoptotic markers (Bax and Bim) and the tight junction protein Claudin‑5 were significantly altered post‑TBI. BAY treatment reversed these effects in both the cerebral cortex extract‑induced cell model and the controlled cortical impact mouse model. BAY was also revealed to suppress activation of the microglial proinflammatory phenotype and microglial migration. In addition, BAY effectively attenuated TBI‑induced neurovascular unit damage and neurological function deficits. Taken together, these findings provided evidence that BAY may inhibit the Mincle/Syk/NF‑κB signaling pathway in microglia; this in turn could attenuate microglia‑mediated neuroinflammation and improve neurological deficits following TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuejun He
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Yimin Huang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Yanchao Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Xincheng Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Pengjie Yue
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Xiaopeng Ma
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Zhuangzhuang Miao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Xiaobing Long
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Yiping Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Xueyan Wan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Jin Lei
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Kai Shu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Ting Lei
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Chao Gan
- Correspondence to: Professor Huaqiu Zhang or Dr Chao Gan, Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China, E-mail: , E-mail:
| | - Huaqiu Zhang
- Correspondence to: Professor Huaqiu Zhang or Dr Chao Gan, Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China, E-mail: , E-mail:
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19
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Yang S, Li X, Bi T. Exosomal microRNA-150-5p from bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells mitigates cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury via targeting toll-like receptor 5. Bioengineered 2021; 13:3030-3043. [PMID: 34898357 PMCID: PMC8973841 DOI: 10.1080/21655979.2021.2012402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNA (miR)-150-5p has been investigated in many studies, while the role of exosomal miR-150-5p from bone arrow mesenchymal stromal cells (BMSCs) on cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is not fully explored. This research aims to probe the effects of exosomal miR-150-5p from BMSCs on cerebral I/R injury via regulating B-cell translocation gene 2 (TLR5). Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (BMSCs-Exo) were isolated and identified. The middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rat model was established and treated by BMSCs-Exo. Then, functional assays were conducted to explore neurological function, pathological changes, neuron apoptosis and inflammatory factors in MCAO rats. miR-150-5p and TLR5 expression in rat brain tissues were detected. Then, gain and loss-function assays were conducted to determine the impact of exosomes, miR-150-5p and TLR5 on neurological function, pathological changes, neuron apoptosis and inflammatory factors of MCAO rats. The binding relation between miR-150-5p and TLR5 was validated. It was found that miR-150-5p expression was decreased while TLR5 level was augmented in MCAO rats. BMSCs-Exo could improve neurological function, pathological changes, decelerate neuron apoptosis and reduce inflammatory factors in MCAO rats. Enriched miR-150-5pcould enhance the protective effects of BMSCs-Exo on cerebral I/R injury. The elevated TLR5 reversed the impacts of elevated exosomal miR-150-5p on cerebral I/R injury. TLR5 was targeted by miR-150-5p. This research manifested that exosomal miR-150-5p from BMSCs exerts protective effects on cerebral I/R injury via repressing TLR5. This study provided novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of cerebral I/R injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Yang
- Department of Geriatrics, Daqing Oilfield General Hospital, 163000, Daqing, , Heilongjiang, P.R.China
| | - Xue Li
- Department of Geriatrics, Daqing Oilfield General Hospital, 163000, Daqing, , Heilongjiang, P.R.China
| | - Ting Bi
- Department of Geriatrics, Daqing Oilfield General Hospital, 163000, Daqing, , Heilongjiang, P.R.China
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20
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Gu C, Chen Y, Chen Y, Liu CF, Zhu Z, Wang M. Role of G Protein-Coupled Receptors in Microglial Activation: Implication in Parkinson's Disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:768156. [PMID: 34867296 PMCID: PMC8635063 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.768156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the prevalent neurodegenerative diseases associated with preferential loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra compacta (SNc) and accumulation of α-synuclein in DA neurons. Even though the precise pathogenesis of PD is not clear, a large number of studies have shown that microglia-mediated neuroinflammation plays a vital role in the process of PD development. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are widely expressed in microglia and several of them act as regulators of microglial activation upon corresponding ligands stimulations. Upon α-synuclein insults, microglia would become excessively activated through some innate immune receptors. Presently, as lack of ideal drugs for treating PD, certain GPCR which is highly expressed in microglia of PD brain and mediates neuroinflammation effectively could be a prospective source for PD therapeutic intervention. Here, six kinds of GPCRs and two types of innate immune receptors were introduced, containing adenosine receptors, purinergic receptors, metabotropic glutamate receptors, adrenergic receptors, cannabinoid receptors, and melatonin receptors and their roles in neuroinflammation; we highlighted the relationship between these six GPCRs and microglial activation in PD. Based on the existing findings, we tried to expound the implication of microglial GPCRs-regulated neuroinflammation to the pathophysiology of PD and their potential to become a new expectation for clinical therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Gu
- Department of Pharmacy, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yajing Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yan Chen
- Department of Child and Adolescent Healthcare, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Chun-Feng Liu
- Department of Neurology, Suzhou Clinical Research Center of Neurological Disease, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Zengyan Zhu
- Department of Pharmacy, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Mei Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
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21
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TLR Signaling in Brain Immunity. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2021; 276:213-237. [PMID: 34761292 DOI: 10.1007/164_2021_542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) comprise a group of transmembrane proteins with crucial roles in pathogen recognition, immune responses, and signal transduction. This family represented the first line of immune homeostasis in an evolutionarily conserved manner. Extensive researches in the past two decades had emphasized their structural and functional characteristics under both healthy and pathological conditions. In this review, we summarized the current understanding of TLR signaling in the central nervous system (CNS), which had been viewed as a previously "immune-privileged" but now "immune-specialized" area, with major implications for further investigation of pathological nature as well as potential therapeutic manipulation of TLR signaling in various neurological disorders.
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22
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Layunta E, Buey B, Mesonero JE, Latorre E. Crosstalk Between Intestinal Serotonergic System and Pattern Recognition Receptors on the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:748254. [PMID: 34819919 PMCID: PMC8607755 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.748254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Disruption of the microbiota-gut-brain axis results in a wide range of pathologies that are affected, from the brain to the intestine. Gut hormones released by enteroendocrine cells to the gastrointestinal (GI) tract are important signaling molecules within this axis. In the search for the language that allows microbiota to communicate with the gut and the brain, serotonin seems to be the most important mediator. In recent years, serotonin has emerged as a key neurotransmitter in the gut-brain axis because it largely contributes to both GI and brain physiology. In addition, intestinal microbiota are crucial in serotonin signaling, which gives more relevance to the role of the serotonin as an important mediator in microbiota-host interactions. Despite the numerous investigations focused on the gut-brain axis and the pathologies associated, little is known regarding how serotonin can mediate in the microbiota-gut-brain axis. In this review, we will mainly discuss serotonergic system modulation by microbiota as a pathway of communication between intestinal microbes and the body on the microbiota-gut-brain axis, and we explore novel therapeutic approaches for GI diseases and mental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Layunta
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Aragón (IIS Aragón), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Berta Buey
- Departamento de Farmacología, Fisiología y Medicina Legal y Forense, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Jose Emilio Mesonero
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Aragón (IIS Aragón), Zaragoza, Spain
- Departamento de Farmacología, Fisiología y Medicina Legal y Forense, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
- Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón—IA2 (Universidad de Zaragoza–CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Eva Latorre
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Aragón (IIS Aragón), Zaragoza, Spain
- Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón—IA2 (Universidad de Zaragoza–CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
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23
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Xun Y, Yang H, Kaminska B, You H. Toll-like receptors and toll-like receptor-targeted immunotherapy against glioma. J Hematol Oncol 2021; 14:176. [PMID: 34715891 PMCID: PMC8555307 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-021-01191-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioma represents a fast proliferating and highly invasive brain tumor which is resistant to current therapies and invariably recurs. Despite some advancements in anti-glioma therapies, patients’ prognosis remains poor. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) act as the first line of defense in the immune system being the detectors of those associated with bacteria, viruses, and danger signals. In the glioma microenvironment, TLRs are expressed on both immune and tumor cells, playing dual roles eliciting antitumoral (innate and adaptive immunity) and protumoral (cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and glioma stem cell maintenance) responses. Up to date, several TLR-targeting therapies have been developed aiming at glioma bulk and stem cells, infiltrating immune cells, the immune checkpoint axis, among others. While some TLR agonists exhibited survival benefit in clinical trials, it attracts more attention when they are involved in combinatorial treatment with radiation, chemotherapy, immune vaccination, and immune checkpoint inhibition in glioma treatment. TLR agonists can be used as immune modulators to enhance the efficacy of other treatment, to avoid dose accumulation, and what brings more interests is that they can potentiate immune checkpoint delayed resistance to PD-1/PD-L1 blockade by upregulating PD-1/PD-L1 overexpression, thus unleash powerful antitumor responses when combined with immune checkpoint inhibitors. Herein, we focus on recent developments and clinical trials exploring TLR-based treatment to provide a picture of the relationship between TLR and glioma and their implications for immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Xun
- Department of Basic Medicine and Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Foshan University, Foshan, 528000, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Hua Yang
- Department of Basic Medicine and Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Foshan University, Foshan, 528000, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Bozena Kaminska
- Affiliated Cancer Hospital and Institute of Guangzhou Medical University, No.78 Heng-Zhi-Gang Road, Yue Xiu District, Guangzhou, 510095, China.,Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Hua You
- Affiliated Cancer Hospital and Institute of Guangzhou Medical University, No.78 Heng-Zhi-Gang Road, Yue Xiu District, Guangzhou, 510095, China.
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24
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Gern OL, Mulenge F, Pavlou A, Ghita L, Steffen I, Stangel M, Kalinke U. Toll-like Receptors in Viral Encephalitis. Viruses 2021; 13:v13102065. [PMID: 34696494 PMCID: PMC8540543 DOI: 10.3390/v13102065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral encephalitis is a rare but serious syndrome. In addition to DNA-encoded herpes viruses, such as herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus, RNA-encoded viruses from the families of Flaviviridae, Rhabdoviridae and Paramyxoviridae are important neurotropic viruses. Whereas in the periphery, the role of Toll-like receptors (TLR) during immune stimulation is well understood, TLR functions within the CNS are less clear. On one hand, TLRs can affect the physiology of neurons during neuronal progenitor cell differentiation and neurite outgrowth, whereas under conditions of infection, the complex interplay between TLR stimulated neurons, astrocytes and microglia is just on the verge of being understood. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about which TLRs are expressed by cell subsets of the CNS. Furthermore, we specifically highlight functional implications of TLR stimulation in neurons, astrocytes and microglia. After briefly illuminating some examples of viral evasion strategies from TLR signaling, we report on the current knowledge of primary immunodeficiencies in TLR signaling and their consequences for viral encephalitis. Finally, we provide an outlook with examples of TLR agonist mediated intervention strategies and potentiation of vaccine responses against neurotropic virus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Luise Gern
- Institute for Experimental Infection Research, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a Joint Venture between the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; (F.M.); (A.P.); (L.G.); (U.K.)
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30559 Hannover, Germany
- Correspondence:
| | - Felix Mulenge
- Institute for Experimental Infection Research, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a Joint Venture between the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; (F.M.); (A.P.); (L.G.); (U.K.)
| | - Andreas Pavlou
- Institute for Experimental Infection Research, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a Joint Venture between the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; (F.M.); (A.P.); (L.G.); (U.K.)
- Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany
| | - Luca Ghita
- Institute for Experimental Infection Research, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a Joint Venture between the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; (F.M.); (A.P.); (L.G.); (U.K.)
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Imke Steffen
- Department of Biochemistry and Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses (RIZ), University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30559 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Martin Stangel
- Translational Medicine, Novartis Institute for Biomedical Research (NIBR), 4056 Basel, Switzerland;
| | - Ulrich Kalinke
- Institute for Experimental Infection Research, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a Joint Venture between the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; (F.M.); (A.P.); (L.G.); (U.K.)
- Cluster of Excellence—Resolving Infection Susceptibility (RESIST, EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
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25
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Anik MI, Mahmud N, Al Masud A, Hasan M. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) in biomedical and clinical applications: A review. NANO SELECT 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/nano.202100255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Muzahidul I. Anik
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Rhode Island South Kingstown Rhode Island USA
| | - Niaz Mahmud
- Department of Biomedical Engineering Military Institute of Science and Technology Dhaka Bangladesh
| | - Abdullah Al Masud
- Department of Chemical Engineering Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology Dhaka Bangladesh
| | - Maruf Hasan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering Military Institute of Science and Technology Dhaka Bangladesh
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