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Zhang F, Wang P, Zhao R, Wang Y, Wang J, Han B, Liu Z. Tuning d-Band Structure of Cu II in Coordinated Polymer via d-π Conjugation for Improving CO 2 Electroreduction Selectivity toward C 2 Products. CHEMSUSCHEM 2022; 15:e202201267. [PMID: 35934674 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202201267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Copper-coordinated catalysts are reported to be effective for electrocatalytic CO2 reduction reaction (CO2 RR) to C2 products but suffer from low selectivity. Herein a strategy was developed to tune the d-band structure of CuII via coordinating with aromatic ligands to form Cu-based conjugated polymers for CO2 RR to C2 chemicals. The catalysts derived from copper chloride coordinating with tetraminobenzoquinone (TABQ) and with 1,2,4,5-benzenetetramine possessed high-density and compact Cu single-atom sites and displayed high activity for CO2 RR to C2 products. Especially, Cu-TABQ exhibited a maximum C2 faradaic efficiency of 63.2 % with a current density of 423 mA cm-2 at -1.17 V (vs. reversible hydrogen electrode). Density functional theory calculations indicated that the TABQ linker possessing C=O groups significantly widened the d-band of coordinated CuII , which facilitated binding of *CO intermediate on the catalyst and thus enhanced C-C coupling. This work provides mechanistic insight into the CuII -coordinated polymers for CO2 RR with high selectivity toward C2 products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengtao Zhang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface and Thermodynamics, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.2 north 1st street, 100190, Beijing, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.19 Yuquan road, 100049, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Peng Wang
- Henan Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Media and Reactions, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Henan Normal University, No.46 Jianshe street, 453007, Xinxiang, Henan, P. R. China
| | - Runyao Zhao
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface and Thermodynamics, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.2 north 1st street, 100190, Beijing, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.19 Yuquan road, 100049, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Yiding Wang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface and Thermodynamics, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.2 north 1st street, 100190, Beijing, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.19 Yuquan road, 100049, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Jianji Wang
- Henan Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Media and Reactions, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Henan Normal University, No.46 Jianshe street, 453007, Xinxiang, Henan, P. R. China
| | - Buxing Han
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface and Thermodynamics, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.2 north 1st street, 100190, Beijing, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.19 Yuquan road, 100049, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Zhimin Liu
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface and Thermodynamics, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.2 north 1st street, 100190, Beijing, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.19 Yuquan road, 100049, Beijing, P. R. China
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Nguyen DLT, Nguyen TM, Lee SY, Kim J, Kim SY, Le QV, Varma RS, Hwang YJ. Electrochemical conversion of CO 2 to value-added chemicals over bimetallic Pd-based nanostructures: Recent progress and emerging trends. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 211:113116. [PMID: 35304112 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 02/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical conversion of CO2 to fuels and chemicals as a sustainable solution for waste transformation has garnered tremendous interest to combat the fervent issue of the prevailing high atmospheric CO2 concentration while contributing to the generation of sustainable energy. Monometallic palladium (Pd) has been shown promising in electrochemical CO2 reduction, producing formate or CO depending on applied potentials. Recently, bimetallic Pd-based materials strived to fine-tune the binding affinity of key intermediates is a prominent strategy for the desired product formation from CO2 reduction. Herein, the recent emerging trends on bimetallic Pd-based electrocatalysts are reviewed, including fundamentals of CO2 electroreduction and material engineering of bimetallic Pd-electrocatalysts categorized by primary products. Modern analytical techniques on these novel electrocatalysts are also thoroughly studied to get insights into reaction mechanisms. Lastly, we deliberate over the challenges and prospects for Pd-based catalysts for electrochemical CO2 conversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dang Le Tri Nguyen
- Division of Computational Physics, Institute for Computational Science, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Faculty of Applied Sciences, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
| | - Tung M Nguyen
- Institute of Applied Technology and Sustainable Development, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Faculty of Environmental and Food Engineering, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | - Si Young Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea; Center for Nanoparticle Research, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiwon Kim
- Clean Energy Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5 Hwarang-ro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Yonsei-KIST Convergence Research Institute, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Soo Young Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Green Manufacturing Technology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Quyet Van Le
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Green Manufacturing Technology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea.
| | - Rajender S Varma
- Regional Center of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute, Palacky University, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
| | - Yun Jeong Hwang
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea; Center for Nanoparticle Research, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea.
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Haryanto A, Lee CW. Shell isolated nanoparticle enhanced Raman spectroscopy for mechanistic investigation of electrochemical reactions. NANO CONVERGENCE 2022; 9:9. [PMID: 35157152 PMCID: PMC8844332 DOI: 10.1186/s40580-022-00301-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical conversion of abundant resources, such as carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, and nitrate, is a remarkable strategy for replacing fossil fuel-based processes and achieving a sustainable energy future. Designing an efficient and selective electrocatalysis system for electrochemical conversion reactions remains a challenge due to a lack of understanding of the reaction mechanism. Shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS) is a promising strategy for experimentally unraveling a reaction pathway and rate-limiting step by detecting intermediate species and catalytically active sites that occur during the reaction regardless of substrate. In this review, we introduce the SHINERS principle and its historical developments. Furthermore, we discuss recent SHINERS applications and developments for investigating intermediate species involved in a variety of electrocatalytic reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andi Haryanto
- Department of Chemistry, Kookmin University, Seoul, 0207, South Korea
| | - Chan Woo Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Kookmin University, Seoul, 0207, South Korea.
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Lee DW, Woo HY, Lee DHD, Jung MC, Lee D, Lee M, Kim JB, Chae JY, Han MJ, Paik T. N,N-Dimethylformamide-Assisted Shape Evolution of Highly Uniform and Shape-Pure Colloidal Copper Nanocrystals. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2021; 17:e2103302. [PMID: 34468086 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202103302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Revised: 07/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, the N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF)-assisted shape evolution of highly uniform and shape-pure copper nanocrystals (Cu NCs) is presented for the first time. Colloidal Cu NCs are synthesized via the disproportionation reaction of copper (I) bromide in the presence of a non-polar solvent mixture. It is observed that the shape of Cu NCs is systematically controlled by the addition of different amounts of DMF to the reaction mixture in high-temperature reaction conditions while maintaining a high size uniformity and shape purity. With increasing amount of DMF in the reaction mixture, the morphology of the Cu NCs change from a cube enclosed by six {100} facets, to a sphere with mixed surface facets, and finally, to an octahedron enclosed by eight {111} facets. The origin of this shape evolution is understood via first-principles density functional theory calculations, which allows the study of the change in the relative surface stability according to surface-coordinating adsorbates. Further, the shape-dependent plasmonic properties are systematically investigated with highly uniform and ligand-exchanged colloidal Cu NCs dispersed in acetonitrile. Finally, the facet-dependent electrocatalytic activities of the shape-controlled Cu NCs are investigated to reveal the activities of the highly uniform and shape-pure Cu NCs in the methanol oxidation reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Won Lee
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho Young Woo
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Hyun David Lee
- Department of Physics, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Myung-Chul Jung
- Department of Physics, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Donguk Lee
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - MinJi Lee
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Bae Kim
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Yeon Chae
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Myung Joon Han
- Department of Physics, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Taejong Paik
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
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Kim JE, Jang JH, Lee KM, Balamurugan M, Jo YI, Lee MY, Choi S, Im SW, Nam KT. Electrochemical Synthesis of Glycine from Oxalic Acid and Nitrate. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:21943-21951. [PMID: 34324785 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202108352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
In manufacturing C-N bond-containing compounds, it is an important challenge to alternate the conventional methodologies that utilize reactive substrates, toxic reagents, and organic solvents. In this study, we developed an electrochemical method to synthesize a C-N bond-containing molecule avoiding the use of cyanides and amines by harnessing nitrate (NO3 - ) as a nitrogen source in an aqueous electrolyte. In addition, we utilized oxalic acid as a carbon source, which can be obtained from electrochemical conversion of CO2. Thus, our approach can provide a route for the utilization of anthropogenic CO2 and nitrate wastes, which cause serious environmental problems including global warming and eutrophication. Interestingly, the coreduction of oxalic acid and nitrate generated reactive intermediates, which led to C-N bond formation followed by further reduction to an amino acid, namely, glycine. By carefully controlling this multireduction process with a fabricated Cu-Hg electrode, we demonstrated the efficient production of glycine with a faradaic efficiency (F.E.) of up to 43.1 % at -1.4 V vs. Ag/AgCl (current density≈90 mA cm-2 ).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong Eun Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun Ho Jang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyu Min Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Mani Balamurugan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Young In Jo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Moo Young Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Seungwoo Choi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Won Im
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Tae Nam
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
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Kim JE, Jang JH, Lee KM, Balamurugan M, Jo YI, Lee MY, Choi S, Im SW, Nam KT. Electrochemical Synthesis of Glycine from Oxalic Acid and Nitrate. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202108352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeong Eun Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering Seoul National University Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
| | - Jun Ho Jang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering Seoul National University Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
| | - Kyu Min Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering Seoul National University Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
| | - Mani Balamurugan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering Seoul National University Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
| | - Young In Jo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering Seoul National University Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
| | - Moo Young Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering Seoul National University Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
| | - Seungwoo Choi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering Seoul National University Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Won Im
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering Seoul National University Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Tae Nam
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering Seoul National University Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
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Zhao Y, Zheng L, Jiang D, Xia W, Xu X, Yamauchi Y, Ge J, Tang J. Nanoengineering Metal-Organic Framework-Based Materials for Use in Electrochemical CO 2 Reduction Reactions. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2021; 17:e2006590. [PMID: 33739607 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202006590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Electrocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide to valuable chemicals is a sustainable technology that can achieve a carbon-neutral energy cycle in the environment. Electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction (CO2 RR) processes using metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), featuring atomically dispersed active sites, large surface area, high porosity, controllable morphology, and remarkable tunability, have attracted considerable research attention. Well-defined MOFs can be constructed to improve conductivity, introduce active centers, and form carbon-based single-atom catalysts (SACs) with enhanced active sites that are accessible for the development of CO2 conversion. In this review, the progress on pristine MOFs, MOF hybrids, and MOF-derived carbon-based SACs is summarized for the electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 . Finally, the limitations and potential improvement directions with respect to the advancement of MOF-related materials for the field of research are discussed. These summaries are expected to provide inspiration on reasonable design to develop stable and high-efficiency MOFs-based electrocatalysts for CO2 RR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingji Zhao
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Chemical Processes, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200062, China
| | - Lingling Zheng
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Chemical Processes, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200062, China
| | - Dong Jiang
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Chemical Processes, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200062, China
| | - Wei Xia
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Chemical Processes, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200062, China
| | - Xingtao Xu
- JST-ERATO Yamauchi Materials Space-Tectonics Project, International Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics (WPI-MANA), National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS), 1-1 Namiki, Ibaraki, Tsukuba, 305-0044, Japan
| | - Yusuke Yamauchi
- JST-ERATO Yamauchi Materials Space-Tectonics Project, International Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics (WPI-MANA), National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS), 1-1 Namiki, Ibaraki, Tsukuba, 305-0044, Japan
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Jianping Ge
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Chemical Processes, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200062, China
| | - Jing Tang
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Chemical Processes, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200062, China
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Díaz-Sainz G, Alvarez-Guerra M, Irabien A. Continuous Electrochemical Reduction of CO 2 to Formate: Comparative Study of the Influence of the Electrode Configuration with Sn and Bi-Based Electrocatalysts. Molecules 2020; 25:E4457. [PMID: 32998373 PMCID: PMC7582696 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25194457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Climate change has become one of the most important challenges in the 21st century, and the electroreduction of CO2 to value-added products has gained increasing importance in recent years. In this context, formic acid or formate are interesting products because they could be used as raw materials in several industries as well as promising fuels in fuel cells. Despite the great number of studies published in the field of the electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 to formic acid/formate working with electrocatalysts of different nature and electrode configurations, few of them are focused on the comparison of different electrocatalyst materials and electrode configurations. Therefore, this work aims at presenting a rigorous and comprehensive comparative assessment of different experimental data previously published after many years of research in different working electrode configurations and electrocatalysts in a continuous mode with a single pass of the inputs through the reactor. Thus, the behavior of the CO2 electroreduction to formate is compared operating with Sn and Bi-based materials under Gas Diffusion Electrodes (GDEs) and Catalyst Coated Membrane Electrodes (CCMEs) configurations. Considering the same electrocatalyst, the use of CCMEs improves the performance in terms of formate concentration and energy consumption. Nevertheless, higher formate rates can be achieved with GDEs because they allow operation at higher current densities of up to 300 mA·cm-2. Bi-based-GDEs outperformed Sn-GDEs in all the figures of merit considered. The comparison also highlights that in CCME configuration, the employ of Bi-based-electrodes enhanced the behavior of the process, increasing the formate concentration by 35% and the Faradaic efficiency by 11%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo Díaz-Sainz
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Department, University of Cantabria, ETSIIT, Avda. Los Castros s/n, 39005 Santander, Spain; (M.A.-G.); (A.I.)
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Recent Advances in the Catalyst Design and Mass Transport Control for the Electrochemical Reduction of Carbon Dioxide to Formate. Catalysts 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/catal10080859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Closing the carbon cycle by the electrochemical reduction of CO2 to formic acid and other high-value chemicals is a promising strategy to mitigate rapid climate change. The main barriers to commercializing a CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR) system for formate production are the chemical inertness, low aqueous solubility, and slow mass transport characteristics of CO2, along with the low selectivity and high overpotential observed in formate production via CO2 reduction. To address those problems, we first explain the possible reaction mechanisms of CO2RRs to formate, and then we present and discuss several strategies to overcome the barriers to commercialization. The electronic structure of the catalyst can be tuned to favor a specific intermediate by adjusting the catalyst composition and tailoring the facets, edges, and corners of the catalyst to better expose the active sites, which has primarily led to increased catalytic activity and selectivity. Controlling the local pH, employing a high-pressure reactor, and using systems with three-phase boundaries can tune the mass transport properties of reactants at the catalyst surface. The reported electrocatalytic performances are summarized afterward to provide insight into which strategies have critical effects on the production of formate.
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