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Eichinger KM, Kosanovich JL, Perkins T, Oury TD, Petrovsky N, Marshall CP, Yondola MA, Empey KM. Prior respiratory syncytial virus infection reduces vaccine-mediated Th2-skewed immunity, but retains enhanced RSV F-specific CD8 T cell responses elicited by a Th1-skewing vaccine formulation. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1025341. [PMID: 36268035 PMCID: PMC9577258 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1025341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) remains the most common cause of lower respiratory tract infections in children worldwide. Development of a vaccine has been hindered due the risk of enhanced respiratory disease (ERD) following natural RSV exposure and the young age (<6 months) at which children would require protection. Risk factors linked to the development of ERD include poorly neutralizing antibody, seronegative status (never been exposed to RSV), and a Th2-type immune response. Stabilization of the more antigenic prefusion F protein (PreF) has reinvigorated hope for a protective RSV vaccine that elicits potent neutralizing antibody. While anecdotal evidence suggests that children and adults previously exposed to RSV (seropositive) are not at risk for developing vaccine associated ERD, differences in host immune responses in seropositive and seronegative individuals that may protect against ERD remain unclear. It is also unclear if vaccine formulations that skew towards Th1- versus Th2-type immune responses increase pathology or provide greater protection in seropositive individuals. Therefore, the goal of this work was to compare the host immune response to a stabilized prefusion RSV antigen formulated alone or with Th1 or Th2 skewing adjuvants in seronegative and seropositive BALB/c mice. We have developed a novel BALB/c mouse model whereby mice are first infected with RSV (seropositive) and then vaccinated during pregnancy to recapitulate maternal immunization strategies. Results of these studies show that prior RSV infection mitigates vaccine-mediated skewing by Th1- and Th2-polarizing adjuvants that was observed in seronegative animals. Moreover, vaccination with PreF plus the Th1-skewing adjuvant, Advax, increased RSV F85-93-specific CD8 T cells in both seronegative and seropositive dams. These data demonstrate the importance of utilizing seropositive animals in preclinical vaccine studies to assess both the safety and efficacy of candidate RSV vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine M. Eichinger
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Pittsburgh School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Jessica L. Kosanovich
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Pittsburgh School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Timothy N. Perkins
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, University of Pittsburg, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Tim D. Oury
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, University of Pittsburg, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Nikolai Petrovsky
- Vaxine Pty Ltd., Bedford Park, SA, Australia
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
| | | | | | - Kerry M. Empey
- Department of Pharmacy and Therapeutics, University of Pittsburgh School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
- Center for Clinical Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Pittsburgh School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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2
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Wellemans V, Benhassou HA, Fuselier E, Bellesort F, Dury S, Lebargy F, Dormoy V, Fichel C, Naour RL, Gounni AS, Lamkhioued B. Role of CCR3 in respiratory syncytial virus infection of airway epithelial cells. iScience 2021; 24:103433. [PMID: 34917892 PMCID: PMC8646169 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.103433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2020] [Revised: 08/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection is the principal cause of severe lower respiratory tract disease and accounts for a significant risk for developing asthma later in life. Clinical studies have shown an increase in airway responsiveness and a concomitant Th2 response in the lungs of RSV-infected patients. These indications suggest that RSV may modulate aspects of the immune response to promote virus replication. Here, we show that CCR3 facilitates RSV infection of airway epithelial cells, an effect that was inhibited by eotaxin-1/CCL11 or upon CCR3 gene silencing. Mechanistically, cellular entry of RSV is mediated by binding of the viral G protein to CCR3 and selective chemotaxis of Th2 cells and eosinophils. In vivo, mice lacking CCR3 display a significant reduction in RSV infection, airway inflammation, and mucus production. Overall, RSV G protein-CCR3 interaction may participate in pulmonary infection and inflammation by enhancing eosinophils' recruitment and less potent antiviral Th2 cells. CCR3 mediates RSV infection of human airway epithelial cells Eotaxin-1 blocks RSV-G binding to CCR3 and significantly decreases RSV infection RSV-G secreted protein (sG) attracts human eosinophils and Th2 cells through CCR3 RSV infection of mice lacking CCR3 exhibited reduced inflammation and mucus secretion
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hassan Ait Benhassou
- Laboratoire d'Immunologie et de Biotechnologie, EA7509-IRMAIC, Pôle-Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Eloise Fuselier
- Laboratoire d'Immunologie et de Biotechnologie, EA7509-IRMAIC, Pôle-Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | | | - Sandra Dury
- Laboratoire d'Immunologie et de Biotechnologie, EA7509-IRMAIC, Pôle-Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France.,Service des Maladies Respiratoires et Allergiques. Hôpital Maison Blanche, CHU de Reims, Reims, France
| | - François Lebargy
- Laboratoire d'Immunologie et de Biotechnologie, EA7509-IRMAIC, Pôle-Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France.,Service des Maladies Respiratoires et Allergiques. Hôpital Maison Blanche, CHU de Reims, Reims, France
| | - Valérian Dormoy
- Inserm UMR-S 1250, Pathologies Pulmonaires et Plasticité Cellulaire (P3Cell). Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Caroline Fichel
- Laboratoire d'Immunologie et de Biotechnologie, EA7509-IRMAIC, Pôle-Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Richard Le Naour
- Laboratoire d'Immunologie et de Biotechnologie, EA7509-IRMAIC, Pôle-Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Abdelilah S Gounni
- Department of Immunology, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Canada
| | - Bouchaib Lamkhioued
- Laboratoire d'Immunologie et de Biotechnologie, EA7509-IRMAIC, Pôle-Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
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3
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Immunopathology of RSV: An Updated Review. Viruses 2021; 13:v13122478. [PMID: 34960746 PMCID: PMC8703574 DOI: 10.3390/v13122478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
RSV is a leading cause of respiratory tract disease in infants and the elderly. RSV has limited therapeutic interventions and no FDA-approved vaccine. Gaps in our understanding of virus-host interactions and immunity contribute to the lack of biological countermeasures. This review updates the current understanding of RSV immunity and immunopathology with a focus on interferon responses, animal modeling, and correlates of protection.
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4
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Shao JB, Luo XQ, Mo LH, Yang G, Liu ZQ, Liu JQ, Liu ZG, Liu DB, Yang PC. Twist1 sustains the apoptosis resistance in eosinophils in nasal mucosa of allergic rhinitis. Arch Biochem Biophys 2021; 702:108828. [PMID: 33741336 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2021.108828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Eosinophils (Eos) are the canonical effector cells in allergic rhinitis (AR) and many inflammatory diseases. The mechanism of eosinophilia occurring in the lesion sites is not fully understood yet. Twist1 protein (Twist, in short) is an apoptosis inhibitor that also has immune regulatory functions. This study aims to investigate the role of Twist in the pathogenesis of eosinophilia in AR. In this study, surgically removed human nasal mucosal samples were obtained from patients with chronic sinusitis and nasal polyps with AR (the AR group) or without AR (the nAR group). Eos were isolated from the samples by flow cytometry. We found that abundant Eos were obtained from the surgically removed nasal mucosa tissues of both nAR and AR groups. Significantly higher Ras activation was detected in AR Eos than that in nAR Eos. Ras activation was associated with the apoptosis resistance in AR Eos. The Twist (an apoptosis inhibitor) expression was higher in AR Eos, which was positively correlated with the Ras activation status. The sensitization to IgG induced Twist expression in Eos, in which Ras activated the MAPK-HIF-1α pathway, the latter promoted the Twist gene transcription. Twist bound Rac GTPase activating protein-1 to sustain the Ras activation in Eos. Ras activation sustained the apoptosis resistance in Eos. In conclusion, high Ras activation was detected in the AR nasal mucosal tissue-isolated Eos. IgG-sensitization induced Ras activation and Twist expression in Eos, that conferred Eos the apoptosis resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Bo Shao
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Shenzhen Hospital, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xiang-Qian Luo
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Shenzhen Hospital, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Li-Hua Mo
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Shenzhen, China; Research Center of Allergy & Immunology, Shenzhen University School of Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Gui Yang
- Department of Otolaryngology, Longgang Central Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Zhi-Qiang Liu
- Longgang ENT Hospital and Shenzhen ENT Institute, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jiang-Qi Liu
- Longgang ENT Hospital and Shenzhen ENT Institute, Shenzhen, China
| | - Zhi-Gang Liu
- Research Center of Allergy & Immunology, Shenzhen University School of Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Da-Bo Liu
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Shenzhen Hospital, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, China.
| | - Ping-Chang Yang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Shenzhen, China; Research Center of Allergy & Immunology, Shenzhen University School of Medicine, Shenzhen, China.
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5
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Andrade CA, Pacheco GA, Gálvez NMS, Soto JA, Bueno SM, Kalergis AM. Innate Immune Components that Regulate the Pathogenesis and Resolution of hRSV and hMPV Infections. Viruses 2020; 12:E637. [PMID: 32545470 PMCID: PMC7354512 DOI: 10.3390/v12060637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) and human Metapneumovirus (hMPV) are two of the leading etiological agents of acute lower respiratory tract infections, which constitute the main cause of mortality in infants. However, there are currently approved vaccines for neither hRSV nor hMPV. Moreover, despite the similarity between the pathology caused by both viruses, the immune response elicited by the host is different in each case. In this review, we discuss how dendritic cells, alveolar macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils, natural killer cells, innate lymphoid cells, and the complement system regulate both pathogenesis and the resolution of hRSV and hMPV infections. The roles that these cells play during infections by either of these viruses will help us to better understand the illnesses they cause. We also discuss several controversial findings, relative to some of these innate immune components. To better understand the inflammation in the lungs, the role of the respiratory epithelium in the recruitment of innate immune cells is briefly discussed. Finally, we review the main prophylactic strategies and current vaccine candidates against both hRSV and hMPV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catalina A. Andrade
- Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8320000, Chile; (C.A.A.); (G.A.P.); (N.M.S.G.); (J.A.S.); (S.M.B.)
| | - Gaspar A. Pacheco
- Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8320000, Chile; (C.A.A.); (G.A.P.); (N.M.S.G.); (J.A.S.); (S.M.B.)
| | - Nicolas M. S. Gálvez
- Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8320000, Chile; (C.A.A.); (G.A.P.); (N.M.S.G.); (J.A.S.); (S.M.B.)
| | - Jorge A. Soto
- Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8320000, Chile; (C.A.A.); (G.A.P.); (N.M.S.G.); (J.A.S.); (S.M.B.)
| | - Susan M. Bueno
- Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8320000, Chile; (C.A.A.); (G.A.P.); (N.M.S.G.); (J.A.S.); (S.M.B.)
| | - Alexis M. Kalergis
- Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8320000, Chile; (C.A.A.); (G.A.P.); (N.M.S.G.); (J.A.S.); (S.M.B.)
- Departamento de Endocrinología, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8320000, Chile
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6
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Muralidharan A, Li C, Wang L, Li X. Immunopathogenesis associated with formaldehyde-inactivated RSV vaccine in preclinical and clinical studies. Expert Rev Vaccines 2016; 16:351-360. [DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2017.1260452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Abenaya Muralidharan
- Centre for Biologics Evaluation, Biologics and Genetic Therapies Directorate, Health Canada and WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologics, Ottawa, ON, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Changgui Li
- Department of Viral Vaccine III, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control and WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, Beijing, PR China
| | - Lisheng Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Xuguang Li
- Centre for Biologics Evaluation, Biologics and Genetic Therapies Directorate, Health Canada and WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologics, Ottawa, ON, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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7
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Qiao L, Zhang Y, Chai F, Tan Y, Huo C, Pan Z. Chimeric virus-like particles containing a conserved region of the G protein in combination with a single peptide of the M2 protein confer protection against respiratory syncytial virus infection. Antiviral Res 2016; 131:131-40. [PMID: 27154395 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2016.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Revised: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the feasibility and efficacy of a virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine composed of the conserved antigenic epitopes of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), the chimeric RSV VLPs HBcΔ-tG and HBcΔ-tG/M282-90 were generated based on the truncated hepatitis B virus core protein (HBcΔ). HBcΔ-tG consisted of HBcΔ, the conserved region (aa 144-204) of the RSV G protein. HBcΔ-tG was combined with a single peptide (aa 82-90) of the M2 protein to generate HBcΔ-tG/M282-90. Immunization of mice with the HBcΔ-tG or HBcΔ-tG/M282-90 VLPs elicited RSV-specific IgG and neutralizing antibody production and conferred protection against RSV infection. Compared with HBcΔ-tG, HBcΔ-tG/M282-90 induced decreased Th2 cytokine production (IL-4 and IL-5), increased Th1 cytokine response (IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-2), and increased ratios of IgG2a/IgG1 antibodies, thereby relieving pulmonary pathology upon subsequent RSV infection. Our results demonstrated that chimeric HBcΔ-tG/M282-90 VLPs represented an effective RSV subunit vaccine candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Qiao
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Feng Chai
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Yiluo Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Chunling Huo
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Zishu Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China.
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8
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Lee YN, Hwang HS, Kim MC, Lee YT, Kim YJ, Lee FEH, Kang SM. Protection against respiratory syncytial virus by inactivated influenza virus carrying a fusion protein neutralizing epitope in a chimeric hemagglutinin. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2015; 12:759-770. [PMID: 26656630 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2015.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Revised: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED A desirable vaccine against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) should induce neutralizing antibodies without eliciting abnormal T cell responses to avoid vaccine-enhanced pathology. In an approach to deliver RSV neutralizing epitopes without RSV-specific T cell antigens, we genetically engineered chimeric influenza virus expressing RSV F262-276 neutralizing epitopes in the globular head domain as a chimeric hemagglutinin (HA) protein. Immunization of mice with formalin-inactivated recombinant chimeric influenza/RSV F262-276 was able to induce RSV protective neutralizing antibodies and lower lung viral loads after challenge. Formalin-inactivated RSV immune mice showed high levels of pulmonary inflammatory cytokines, macrophages, IL-4-producing T cells, and extensive histopathology. However, RSV-specific T cell responses and enhancement of pulmonary histopathology were not observed after RSV infection of inactivated chimeric influenza/RSV F262-276. This study provides evidence that an inactivated vaccine platform of chimeric influenza/RSV virus can be developed into a safe RSV vaccine candidate without priming RSV-specific T cells and immunopathology. FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of respiratory tract illness and morbidity in children. Hence, there is a need to develop an effective vaccine against this virus. In this article, the authors engineered chimeric influenza virus to express RSV neutralizing epitopes. The positive findings in in-vivo experiments provide a beginning for future clinical trials and perhaps eventual product realization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Na Lee
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Hye Suk Hwang
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Min-Chul Kim
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Tae Lee
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Yu-Jin Kim
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | - Sang-Moo Kang
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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Alum Adjuvant Enhances Protection against Respiratory Syncytial Virus but Exacerbates Pulmonary Inflammation by Modulating Multiple Innate and Adaptive Immune Cells. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0139916. [PMID: 26468884 PMCID: PMC4607166 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is well-known for inducing vaccine-enhanced respiratory disease after vaccination of young children with formalin-inactivated RSV (FI-RSV) in alum formulation. Here, we investigated alum adjuvant effects on protection and disease after FI-RSV immunization with or without alum in comparison with live RSV reinfections. Despite viral clearance, live RSV reinfections caused weight loss and substantial pulmonary inflammation probably due to high levels of RSV specific IFN-γ+IL4-, IFN-γ-TNF-α+, IFN-γ+TNF-α- effector CD4 and CD8 T cells. Alum adjuvant significantly improved protection as evidenced by effective viral clearance compared to unadjuvanted FI-RSV. However, in contrast to unadjuvanted FI-RSV, alum-adjuvanted FI-RSV (FI-RSV-A) induced severe vaccine-enhanced RSV disease including weight loss, eosinophilia, and lung histopathology. Alum adjuvant in the FI-RSV-A was found to be mainly responsible for inducing high levels of RSV-specific IFN-γ-IL4+, IFN-γ-TNF-α+ CD4+ T cells, and proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-4 as well as B220+ plasmacytoid and CD4+ dendritic cells, and inhibiting the induction of IFN-γ+CD8 T cells. This study suggests that alum adjuvant in FI-RSV vaccines increases immunogenicity and viral clearance but also induces atypical T helper CD4+ T cells and multiple inflammatory dendritic cell subsets responsible for vaccine-enhanced severe RSV disease.
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10
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Lambert SL, Aslam S, Stillman E, MacPhail M, Nelson C, Ro B, Sweetwood R, Lei YM, Woo JC, Tang RS. A novel respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) F subunit vaccine adjuvanted with GLA-SE elicits robust protective TH1-type humoral and cellular immunity in rodent models. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0119509. [PMID: 25793508 PMCID: PMC4368639 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0119509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Illness associated with Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) remains an unmet medical need in both full-term infants and older adults. The fusion glycoprotein (F) of RSV, which plays a key role in RSV infection and is a target of neutralizing antibodies, is an attractive vaccine target for inducing RSV-specific immunity. Methodology and Principal Findings BALB/c mice and cotton rats, two well-characterized rodent models of RSV infection, were used to evaluate the immunogenicity of intramuscularly administered RSV vaccine candidates consisting of purified soluble F (sF) protein formulated with TLR4 agonist glucopyranosyl lipid A (GLA), stable emulsion (SE), GLA-SE, or alum adjuvants. Protection from RSV challenge, serum RSV neutralizing responses, and anti-F IgG responses were induced by all of the tested adjuvanted RSV sF vaccine formulations. However, only RSV sF + GLA-SE induced robust F-specific TH1-biased humoral and cellular responses. In mice, these F-specific cellular responses include both CD4 and CD8 T cells, with F-specific polyfunctional CD8 T cells that traffic to the mouse lung following RSV challenge. This RSV sF + GLA-SE vaccine formulation can also induce robust RSV neutralizing titers and prime IFNγ-producing T cell responses in Sprague Dawley rats. Conclusions/Significance These studies indicate that a protein subunit vaccine consisting of RSV sF + GLA-SE can induce robust neutralizing antibody and T cell responses to RSV, enhancing viral clearance via a TH1 immune-mediated mechanism. This vaccine may benefit older populations at risk for RSV disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacie L. Lambert
- Department of Research, MedImmune, Mountain View, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Shahin Aslam
- Department of Research, MedImmune, Mountain View, California, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth Stillman
- Department of Research, MedImmune, Mountain View, California, United States of America
| | - Mia MacPhail
- Department of Research, MedImmune, Mountain View, California, United States of America
| | - Christine Nelson
- Department of Research, MedImmune, Mountain View, California, United States of America
| | - Bodrey Ro
- Department of Research, MedImmune, Mountain View, California, United States of America
| | - Rosemary Sweetwood
- Department of Research, MedImmune, Mountain View, California, United States of America
| | - Yuk Man Lei
- Department of Research, MedImmune, Mountain View, California, United States of America
| | - Jennifer C. Woo
- Department of Research, MedImmune, Mountain View, California, United States of America
| | - Roderick S. Tang
- Department of Research, MedImmune, Mountain View, California, United States of America
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11
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Knudson CJ, Hartwig SM, Meyerholz DK, Varga SM. RSV vaccine-enhanced disease is orchestrated by the combined actions of distinct CD4 T cell subsets. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004757. [PMID: 25769044 PMCID: PMC4358888 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
There is no currently licensed vaccine for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) despite being the leading cause of lower respiratory tract infections in children. Children previously immunized with a formalin-inactivated RSV (FI-RSV) vaccine exhibited enhanced respiratory disease following natural RSV infection. Subsequent studies in animal models have implicated roles for CD4 T cells, eosinophils and non-neutralizing antibodies in mediating enhanced respiratory disease. However, the underlying immunological mechanisms responsible for the enhanced respiratory disease and other disease manifestations associated with FI-RSV vaccine-enhanced disease remain unclear. We demonstrate for the first time that while CD4 T cells mediate all aspects of vaccine-enhanced disease, distinct CD4 T cell subsets orchestrate discrete and specific disease parameters. A Th2-biased immune response, but not eosinophils specifically, was required for airway hyperreactivity and mucus hypersecretion. In contrast, the Th1-associated cytokine TNF-α was necessary to mediate airway obstruction and weight loss. Our data demonstrate that individual disease manifestations associated with FI-RSV vaccine-enhanced disease are mediated by distinct subsets of CD4 T cells. RSV is a significant healthcare burden and is the leading cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia during childhood. The failure of the 1960's FI-RSV vaccine trial to not only elicit protection against RSV infection, but also provoke enhanced morbidity and mortality in vaccinees has significantly hampered development of new RSV vaccines for fear of disease potentiation. Therefore we sought to determine the specific immunological mechanisms that mediate FI-RSV VED to provide a framework to evaluate factors associated with disease exacerbation. Work presented herein demonstrate for the first time that individual disease manifestations associated with FI-RSV-immunization are mediated by distinct CD4 T cell subsets and not by eosinophils. Our results stress the need to evaluate multiple disease parameters for future RSV vaccine candidates. Failure to thoroughly assess the immune response and disease manifestations associated with new candidate vaccines may lead to undesired results in vaccine trials and further hinder future vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cory J. Knudson
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Stacey M. Hartwig
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - David K. Meyerholz
- Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Steven M. Varga
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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12
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Dual proinflammatory and antiviral properties of pulmonary eosinophils in respiratory syncytial virus vaccine-enhanced disease. J Virol 2014; 89:1564-78. [PMID: 25410867 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01536-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of morbidity and severe lower respiratory tract disease in the elderly and very young, with some infants developing bronchiolitis, recurrent wheezing, and asthma following infection. Previous studies in humans and animal models have shown that vaccination with formalin-inactivated RSV (FI-RSV) leads to prominent airway eosinophilic inflammation following RSV challenge; however, the roles of pulmonary eosinophilia in the antiviral response and in disease pathogenesis are inadequately understood. In vivo studies in mice with eotaxin and/or interleukin 5 (IL-5) deficiency showed that FI-RSV vaccination did not lead to enhanced pulmonary disease, where following challenge there were reduced pulmonary eosinophilia, inflammation, Th2-type cytokine responses, and altered chemokine (TARC and CCL17) responses. In contrast to wild-type mice, RSV was recovered at high titers from the lungs of eotaxin- and/or IL-5-deficient mice. Adoptive transfer of eosinophils to FI-RSV-immunized eotaxin- and IL-5-deficient (double-deficient) mice challenged with RSV was associated with potent viral clearance that was mediated at least partly through nitric oxide. These studies show that pulmonary eosinophilia has dual outcomes: one linked to RSV-induced airway inflammation and pulmonary pathology and one with innate features that contribute to a reduction in the viral load. IMPORTANCE This study is critical to understanding the mechanisms attributable to RSV vaccine-enhanced disease. This study addresses the hypothesis that IL-5 and eotaxin are critical in pulmonary eosinophil response related to FI-RSV vaccine-enhanced disease. The findings suggest that in addition to mediating tissue pathology, eosinophils within a Th2 environment also have antiviral activity.
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13
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The increased type-1 and type-2 chemokine levels in children with acute RSV infection alter the development of adaptive immune responses. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:750521. [PMID: 25013801 PMCID: PMC4071813 DOI: 10.1155/2014/750521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2014] [Revised: 05/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Severe RSV infections and frequent recurrence could be related to the altered polarization of type-2/type-1 T cells. This increases the importance of determining distinctive chemokines and chemokine receptor profiles on memory T cells. We analyzed systemic adaptive T cell response in the acute (n = 17) and convalescent phase (n = 7) of RSV-infected children, in the acute (n = 11) and convalescent phase (n = 6) of children with other viral respiratory infections (adenovirus and influenza virus), and in healthy children (n = 18). Expression of CCR4 and CXCR3 on effector-memory (TEM) and central-memory (TCM) T cells was compared between tested groups. Serum concentrations of specific chemokines were determined. High CXCL10 levels were detected in acutely infected children regardless of virus pathogen, whereas increased CCL17 production was RSV-specific. Higher percentages of CCR4+ CD4 TEM cells in acute RSV infection were accompanied with higher percentages of CXCR3+ CD8 TEM cells, whereas the development of long-lived memory CXCR3+ CD4 and CD8 TCM cells seems to be compromised, as only children with other viral infections had higher percentages in the convalescent phase. Presence of type-2 and type-1 adaptive antiviral immune response, together with insufficient development of long-lived type-1 T cell memory, could play an important role in RSV pathogenesis and reinfection.
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Gentil K, Lentz CS, Rai R, Muhsin M, Kamath AD, Mutluer O, Specht S, Hübner MP, Hoerauf A. Eotaxin-1 is involved in parasite clearance during chronic filarial infection. Parasite Immunol 2014; 36:60-77. [PMID: 24112106 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2013] [Accepted: 09/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Eosinophil migration as key feature of helminth infection is increased during infection with filarial nematodes. In a mouse model of filariasis, we investigated the role of the eosinophil-attracting chemokine Eotaxin-1 on disease outcome. BALB/c and Eotaxin-1(-/-) mice were infected with the rodent filaria Litomosoides sigmodontis, and parasitic parameters, cellular migration to the site of infection, and cellular responsiveness were investigated. We found increased parasite survival but unaffected eosinophil migration to the site of infection in Eotaxin-1(-/-) mice. Expression of CD80 and CD86 was reduced on eosinophils from Eotaxin-1(-/-) mice after in vitro TLR2 stimulation and exposure to filarial antigen, respectively, suggesting a potential reduced activation state of eosinophils in Eotaxin-1 deficient mice. We further demonstrated that macrophages from Eotaxin-1(-/-) mice produce decreased amounts of IL-6 in vitro, a cytokine found to be associated with parasite containment, suggesting possible mechanisms by which Eotaxin-1 regulates activation of inflammatory cells and thus parasite survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Gentil
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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15
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Jorquera PA, Choi Y, Oakley KE, Powell TJ, Boyd JG, Palath N, Haynes LM, Anderson LJ, Tripp RA. Nanoparticle vaccines encompassing the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) G protein CX3C chemokine motif induce robust immunity protecting from challenge and disease. PLoS One 2013; 8:e74905. [PMID: 24040360 PMCID: PMC3769300 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticle vaccines were produced using layer-by-layer fabrication and incorporating respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) G protein polypeptides comprising the CX3C chemokine motif. BALB/c mice immunized with G protein nanoparticle vaccines produced a neutralizing antibody response that inhibited RSV replication in the lungs following RSV challenge. ELISPOT analysis showed that G nanoparticle vaccinated mice had increased levels of RSV G protein-specific IL-4 and IFN-γ secreting cells compared to controls following RSV challenge. Remarkably, RSV challenge of G protein nanoparticle vaccinated mice resulted in increased RSV M2-specific IL-4 and IFN-γ secreting T cells, and increased M2-specific H-2Kd-tetramer positive CD8+ T cells in the lungs compared to controls. Cell type analysis showed vaccination was not associated with increased pulmonary eosinophilia following RSV challenge. These results demonstrate that vaccination of mice with the RSV G protein nanoparticle vaccines induces a potent neutralizing antibody response, increased G protein- and M2- specific T cell responses, and a reduction in RSV disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A. Jorquera
- Department of Infectious Disease, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Youngjoo Choi
- Department of Infectious Disease, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Katie E. Oakley
- Department of Infectious Disease, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Thomas J. Powell
- Artificial Cell Technologies, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - James G. Boyd
- Artificial Cell Technologies, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Naveen Palath
- Artificial Cell Technologies, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Lia M. Haynes
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Larry J. Anderson
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Ralph A. Tripp
- Department of Infectious Disease, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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16
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González PA, Bueno SM, Carreño LJ, Riedel CA, Kalergis AM. Respiratory syncytial virus infection and immunity. Rev Med Virol 2012; 22:230-44. [DOI: 10.1002/rmv.1704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2011] [Revised: 11/14/2011] [Accepted: 11/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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17
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Krause A, Xu Y, Ross S, Wu W, Joh J, Worgall S. Absence of vaccine-enhanced RSV disease and changes in pulmonary dendritic cells with adenovirus-based RSV vaccine. Virol J 2011; 8:375. [PMID: 21801372 PMCID: PMC3166937 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-8-375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2011] [Accepted: 07/29/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of a vaccine against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) has been hampered by the risk for vaccine-enhanced RSV pulmonary disease induced by immunization with formalin-inactivated RSV (FIRSV). This study focuses on the evaluation of vaccine-enhanced pulmonary disease following immunization with AdF.RGD, an integrin-targeted adenovirus vector that expresses the RSV F protein and includes an RGD (Arg-Gly-Asp) motif. Immunization of BALB/c mice with AdF.RGD, resulted in anti-RSV protective immunity and induced increased RSV-specific IFN-γ T cell responses compared to FIRSV. RSV infection 5 wk after immunization with FIRSV induced pulmonary inflammatory responses in the lung, that was not observed with AdF.RGD. Additionally, In the FIRSV-immunized mice following infection with RSV, pulmonary DC increased and Tregs decreased. This suggests that distinct responses of pulmonary DC and Tregs are a features of vaccine-enhanced RSV disease and that immunization with an RGD-modified Ad vaccine does not trigger vaccine-enhanced disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Krause
- Department of Genetic Medicine, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
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18
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Kastelijn EA, Rijkers GT, Van Moorsel CH, Zanen P, Kwakkel-van Erp JM, Van De Graaf EA, Van Kessel DA, Grutters JC, Van Den Bosch JM. Systemic and exhaled cytokine and chemokine profiles are associated with the development of bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome. J Heart Lung Transplant 2010; 29:997-1008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.healun.2010.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2009] [Revised: 04/13/2010] [Accepted: 04/28/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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Rosenberg HF, Dyer KD, Domachowske JB. Respiratory viruses and eosinophils: exploring the connections. Antiviral Res 2009; 83:1-9. [PMID: 19375458 PMCID: PMC2741084 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2009.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2009] [Revised: 04/06/2009] [Accepted: 04/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
In this review, we consider the role played by eosinophilic leukocytes in the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of respiratory virus infection. The vast majority of the available information on this topic focuses on respiratory syncytial virus (RSV; Family Paramyxoviridae, genus Pneumovirus), an important pediatric pathogen that infects infants worldwide. There is no vaccine currently available for RSV. A formalin-inactivated RSV vaccine used in a trial in the 1960s elicited immunopathology in response to natural RSV infection; this has been modeled experimentally, primarily in inbred mice and cotton rats. Eosinophils are recruited to the lung tissue in response to formalin-inactivated RSV vaccine antigens in humans and in experimental models, but they may or may not be involved in promoting the severe clinical sequelae observed. Pulmonary eosinophilia elicited in response to primary RSV infection has also been explored; this response is particularly evident in the youngest human infants and in neonatal mouse models. Although pulmonary eosinophilia is nearly always perceived in a negative light, the specific role played by virus-elicited eosinophils - negative, positive or neutral bystander - remain unclear. Lastly, we consider the data that focus on the role of eosinophils in promoting virus clearance and antiviral host defense, and conclude with a recent study that explores the role of eosinophils themselves as targets of virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helene F Rosenberg
- Eosinophil Biology Section, Laboratory of Allergic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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20
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Olson MR, Varga SM. Fas ligand is required for the development of respiratory syncytial virus vaccine-enhanced disease. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 182:3024-31. [PMID: 19234198 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0803585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Children immunized with a formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccine experienced enhanced disease and exhibited pulmonary eosinophilia upon natural RSV infection. BALB/c mice immunized with either formalin-inactivated RSV or a recombinant vaccinia virus (vacv) expressing the RSV attachment (G) protein develop extensive pulmonary eosinophilia after RSV challenge that mimics the eosinophilic response observed in the children during the 1960s vaccine trials. Fas ligand (FasL) is a major immune effector molecule that can contribute to the clearance of respiratory viruses. However, the role of FasL in the development of RSV vaccine-enhanced disease has not been elucidated. RSV challenge of vacvG-immunized gld mice, that lack functional FasL, results in diminished systemic disease as well as pulmonary eosinophilia. The magnitude of the secondary RSV G-specific CD4 T cell response was diminished in gld mice as compared with wild-type controls. Furthermore, we show that CD4 T cells isolated after RSV challenge of vacvG-immunized gld mice exhibit enhanced expression of Annexin V and caspase 3/7 indicating that FasL is important for either the survival or the expansion of virus-specific secondary effector CD4 T cells. Taken together, these data identify a previously undefined role for FasL in the accumulation of secondary effector CD4 T cells and the development of RSV vaccine-enhanced disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Olson
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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21
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TLR9 agonist, but not TLR7/8, functions as an adjuvant to diminish FI-RSV vaccine-enhanced disease, while either agonist used as therapy during primary RSV infection increases disease severity. Vaccine 2009; 27:3045-52. [PMID: 19428918 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2008] [Revised: 03/06/2009] [Accepted: 03/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Agonists for TLR7, TLR8, and TLR9 have been shown to enhance vaccine immunogenicity. We evaluated the impact of TLR activation on RSV disease in a murine model by administering TLR7/8 and TLR9 agonists during FI-RSV immunization or RSV infection. CpG administered during immunization reduced disease following challenge as evidenced by decreased lung pathology, illness, and cytokines. In marked contrast, TLR7/8 agonist had little impact. To evaluate potential therapeutic use, TLR agonists were administered during primary infection. Although type 2 cytokine responses decreased and type 1 cytokines and MIP-1-alpha/beta increased, both TLR7/8 and TLR9 agonists increased clinical symptoms and pulmonary inflammation when administered during primary infection. Thus, TLR9-induced signaling during FI-RSV immunization reduced vaccine-enhanced disease whereas immunostimulatory properties of TLR agonists enhanced disease severity when used during RSV infection. Immunomodulation elicited by TLR9 agonist confirms the adjuvant potential of TLR agonists during RSV immunization. However, in contrast to work done with HIV-1 vaccines, the inability of TLR7/8 agonist to boost type 1 vaccine-induced RSV immunity demonstrates pathogen-TLR specificity. These data reveal that the timing of administration of immunomodulatory agents is critical. Furthermore, these data underscore that amplification of anti-viral immune responses may result in immunopathology rather than immune-mediated protection.
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22
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Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of severe respiratory disease in infants and is an important source of morbidity and mortality in the elderly and immunocompromised. This review will discuss the humoral and cellular adaptive immune responses to RSV infection and how these responses are shaped in the immature immune system of the infant and the aged environment of the elderly. Furthermore, we will provide an overview of our current understanding of the role the various arms of the adaptive immune response play in mediating the delicate balance between the successful elimination of the virus from the host and the induction of immunopathology. Efficacious immunization against RSV remains a high priority within the field and we will highlight recent advances made in vaccine design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Olson
- Department of Microbiology, 51 Newton Road, 3−532 Bowen Science Building, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA Tel.: +1 319 335 8433 Fax: +1 319 335 9006
| | - Steven M Varga
- Department of Microbiology, Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Immunology, 51 Newton Road, 3−532 Bowen Science Building, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA Tel.: +1 319 335 7784 Fax: +1 319 335 9006
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