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Altwaijri Y, Stein DJ, Akkad M, Bilal L, Talal Naseem M, Al-Subaie A, Al-Habeeb A, Kessler RC. The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Data from the Saudi National Mental Health Survey. J Anxiety Disord 2024; 103:102856. [PMID: 38554604 DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2024.102856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024]
Abstract
AIMS There is ongoing debate about the extent to which the epidemiology of OCD is similar across the world, given the lack of nationally representative data from key regions like the Middle East and North Africa. Using the nationally representative dataset from the Saudi National Mental Health Survey (SNMHS), we aimed to delineate the epidemiological profile of OCD in the Saudi population. METHODS A subsample of 1981 participants from the SNMHS was assessed. Prevalence estimates and correlates of OCD were determined using logistic regressions and cross tabulations. RESULTS The lifetime, 12-month, and 30-day prevalence estimates for OCD were 4.2%, 1.8%, and 1.6%, respectively, with hoarding being the most common symptom dimension. The mean age-of-onset of OCD was 16.8 years. In over two-thirds of respondents with lifetime (72.2%) or 12-month (71.2%), OCD was accompanied by comorbid mental disorder, particularly impulse control, anxiety, and mood disorders. Among individuals with 12-month OCD, 77.5% reported severe impairment, and only 9.2% received treatment. CONCLUSIONS In Saudi Arabia, OCD is a prevalent and persistent condition, characterized by early onset, high odds of mental comorbidity, and significant associated impairment. These findings emphasize the universality of OCD epidemiology and the need for improved diagnosis and treatment globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmin Altwaijri
- Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Scientific Computing Department, King Faisal Specialist, Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Research Department, King Salman Center for Disability Research, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; SABIC Psychological Health Research & Applications Chair (SPHRAC), College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Dan J Stein
- SAMRC Unit on Risk & Resilience in Mental Disorders, Dept of Psychiatry & Neuroscience Institute, University of Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Marya Akkad
- Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Scientific Computing Department, King Faisal Specialist, Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Research Department, King Salman Center for Disability Research, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; SABIC Psychological Health Research & Applications Chair (SPHRAC), College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Lisa Bilal
- Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Scientific Computing Department, King Faisal Specialist, Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Research Department, King Salman Center for Disability Research, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; SABIC Psychological Health Research & Applications Chair (SPHRAC), College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammad Talal Naseem
- Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Scientific Computing Department, King Faisal Specialist, Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Research Department, King Salman Center for Disability Research, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; SABIC Psychological Health Research & Applications Chair (SPHRAC), College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdullah Al-Subaie
- SABIC Psychological Health Research & Applications Chair (SPHRAC), College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Psychiatry, Edrak Medical Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulhameed Al-Habeeb
- National Center for Mental Health Promotion, Ministry of Health, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ronald C Kessler
- Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
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Morris OJ, Wiese AD, Pinciotti CM, Pacheco R, Mallen MCM, Schweissing EJ, Soileau KJ, Crowley JJ, Storch EA. Obsessive-compulsive disorder among individuals of Hispanic and Latin American ancestry: Cultural considerations for assessment and psychotherapy. Bull Menninger Clin 2024; 88:148-170. [PMID: 38836850 DOI: 10.1521/bumc.2024.88.2.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Research specific to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) among individuals of Hispanic and Latin American (H/L) ancestry is limited, as are culturally relevant assessment and treatment recommendations. This article discusses the implications of underrepresentation of H/L populations in OCD research and emphasizes the need to consider issues related to assessment, treatment, and structural barriers that hinder delivery of culturally appropriate first-line psychotherapy. Recommendations for assessment and treatment are provided to aid clinicians in distinguishing culturally normative thoughts and behaviors from OCD, as well as to inform the implementation of psychotherapeutic interventions with cultural humility. This manuscript offers recommendations for future research to tackle health equity concerns with respect to assessment and treatment and structural factors limiting access to culturally appropriate psychotherapy. Wide-scale efforts are needed to comprehensively understand how H/L cultures intersect with various OCD presentations and to further disseminate treatments to populations that have historically lacked access to mental health care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia J Morris
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Andrew D Wiese
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Caitlin M Pinciotti
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | | | | | | | - Keaton J Soileau
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - James J Crowley
- Department of Genetics and with the and the Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Eric A Storch
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
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Abed H, Ezzat Y, Alsaadawi L, Almarzouki R, Aboulkhair R, Alqarni A, Sharka R. Negative Impacts of Psychiatric Medications on Oral Health: A Literature Review. Cureus 2023; 15:e49915. [PMID: 38174204 PMCID: PMC10763832 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.49915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Evidence reveals that people with mental illnesses have a greater risk of experiencing oral diseases such as dry mouth and dental caries and have greater oral treatment needs. This is related to multifactorial causes such as factors related to the condition itself, symptoms, side effects of polypharmacy, and a lack of accessibility to dental services. This article aims to provide a summary of the reported prevalence of the most common mental illnesses in Saudi Arabia (SA), such as schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), bipolar disorders, and dementia. The article further aims to review the negative impacts of anti-psychotic medications on oral health and the role of dentists toward people with mental illnesses. PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar were searched using the following keywords: special care dentistry, schizophrenia, OCD, bipolar disorder, and dementia. The main inclusion criteria were any studies describing "dental management of patients with mental illnesses" and "dental management of patients treated with anti-psychotic medications." Thematic analysis was used to summarize the findings of the included studies into main headings. Forty-eight articles/studies discussed dentistry, people with mental illnesses, and/or the negative impacts of psychotic medication on oral health. All studies were published between 1991 and 2021. In SA, the number of people with mental illnesses is increasing. Therefore, it is crucial for the dental team to understand the negative impacts of anti-psychotic medications on oral health, such as dry mouth and the increased risk of dental caries. This necessitates the need for regular dental visits and patient education on how they can mitigate the side effects of anti-psychotic medications on oral and general health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hassan Abed
- Department of Basic and Clinical Oral Science, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, SAU
| | - Yousef Ezzat
- Dentistry, Yanbu Specialized Dental Center, Riyadh, SAU
| | - Layan Alsaadawi
- Dentistry, Ibn Sina National College of Medical Sciences, Jeddah, SAU
| | - Rayan Almarzouki
- Department of Dental Services, King Abdulaziz Medical City, Jeddah, SAU
| | - Reema Aboulkhair
- College of Dentistry, King Abdulaziz University Dental Hospital, Jeddah, SAU
| | - Ali Alqarni
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, University of Taif, Taif, SAU
| | - Rayan Sharka
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, SAU
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Fekih-Romdhane F, El Tawil N, El Zouki CJ, Jaalouk K, Obeid S, Hallit S. Psychometric properties of an Arabic translation of the shortest version of the Central Religiosity Scale (CRS-5) in a sample of young adults. BMC Psychol 2023; 11:400. [PMID: 37980533 PMCID: PMC10657561 DOI: 10.1186/s40359-023-01431-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a dearth of research on religiosity in Arabic-speaking populations, partly due to a lack of universal, standardized and valid instruments to assess this construct. We sought through this study to establish the psychometric properties of an Arabic translation of the shortest version of the Central Religiosity Scale (CRS-5), a widely used measure of religiosity that can be applicable to most religious traditions, thus allowing for worldwide cultural and trans-religious comparisons. METHOD A total of 352 Lebanese young adults enrolled in this study with a mean age of 25.08 years (SD = 9.25) and 73.3% women. The forward-backward method was adopted to translate the original English version of the CRS-5 to Arabic. RESULTS We ran an Exploratory Factor Analysis for the CRS-5 to test whether the expected dimensionality is suitable for the subsequent Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). The model found replicates the originally proposed five items and one-factor model. Our findings demonstrated that the Arabic CRS-5 achieved good levels of composite reliability, with a McDonald's ω coefficient of .85. A multi-group CFA was modelled for the examination of measurement invariance of the Arabic CRS-5 across gender at the metric, configural, and scalar levels. Between-gender comparisons revealed no significant differences between males and females regarding CRS-5 scores. Finally, we found that religiosity was positively correlated with positive mental health aspects (i.e., social support) and inversely correlated with negative mental health aspects (i.e., suicidal ideation, depression, social anxiety and entrapment); thus attesting for the convergent validity of the CRS-5 as a measure of centrality of religiosity. CONCLUSION Pending further validations with larger and more representative populations, we preliminarily suggest that the Arabic CRS-5 is psychometrically sound, and can be recommended for use for research and clinical purposes in Arabic-speaking people of various religions and cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feten Fekih-Romdhane
- The Tunisian Center of Early Intervention in Psychosis, Department of Psychiatry "Ibn Omrane", Razi Hospital, 2010, Manouba, Tunisia
- Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, Tunis El Manar University, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Nathalie El Tawil
- Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, P.O. Box 446, Jounieh, Lebanon
| | - Christian-Joseph El Zouki
- School of Medicine and Medical Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, P.O. Box 446, Jounieh, Lebanon
- UFR de Médecine, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 1 Rue des Louvels, Amiens, 80037, France
- Faculté d'Ingénierie et de Management de la Santé, 42 rue Ambroise Paré, Loos, 59120, France
| | | | - Sahar Obeid
- Social and Education Sciences Department, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Jbeil, Lebanon.
| | - Souheil Hallit
- School of Medicine and Medical Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, P.O. Box 446, Jounieh, Lebanon.
- Psychology Department, College of Humanities, Efat University, Jeddah, 21478, Saudi Arabia.
- Applied Science Research Center, Applied Science Private University, Amman, Jordan.
- Research Department, Psychiatric Hospital of the Cross, Jal Eddib, Lebanon.
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Okasha T, Elhabiby MM, Mohsen N, Sharaf H, Elnagar Z. Role of traditional healers in the pathway of service for a sample of obsessive compulsive disorder patients in Egypt. Int J Soc Psychiatry 2021; 67:643-650. [PMID: 33100125 DOI: 10.1177/0020764020963358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The diagnosis and treatment of an illness using traditional medicine is in most cases culture-specific and based on beliefs in the community. The majority of mentally ill patients prefer to attend to traditional healers because of the trust problems in the system, affordability, accessibility, and ease of the service. AIM To assess the role of traditional healers among the pathway of psychiatric services of OCD patients, and to highlight its clinical correlates. METHODS we assessed 93 patients with OCD after confirmation of the diagnosis with fifth version of MINI semi structured interview, using a questionnaire designed and accustomed by authors to assess help seeking behavior in OCD patients and its sociodemographic and clinical correlates. Type of symptomatology and its severity were assessed using Y-BOCS. RESULTS A total of 39.8% sought traditional healers help, 94.6% were before psychiatric advice, main symptoms related to traditional healers seeking were religious and sexual obsessions. Main causes of traditional healers' preference were stigma of seeking psychiatric advice in 89.2% of cases, considering disease related to religion in 81.1%, considering that religious commitment help in treatment 75, 7%, and considering disease related to magic and superstitions in 45.9%. Religious origin of illness was the most statistically significant factor related to seeking advice at traditional healers. CONCLUSION This study shows that a significant percentage of the patients suffering from OCD prefer to approach traditional healers first due to their own beliefs mainly religious, and society acceptance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarek Okasha
- Institute of psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud M Elhabiby
- Institute of psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Nesreen Mohsen
- Institute of psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Hussein Sharaf
- Institute of psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Zeinab Elnagar
- Institute of psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
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Md Rosli AN, Sharip S, Thomas NS. Scrupulosity and Islam: a perspective. JOURNAL OF SPIRITUALITY IN MENTAL HEALTH 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/19349637.2019.1700476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Nabil Md Rosli
- Department of Psychiatry, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Kuantan, Pahang Darul Makmur, Malaysia
| | - Shalisah Sharip
- Department of Psychiatry, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre (UKMMC), Wilayah Persekutuan, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Nur Sakinah Thomas
- Coordinatorship of Foreign Language Preparatory School, Uskudar University, Istanbul, Turkey
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Frequency of use of the International Classification of Diseases ICD-10 diagnostic categories for mental and behavioural disorders across world regions. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci 2018; 27:568-576. [PMID: 29117869 PMCID: PMC6999009 DOI: 10.1017/s2045796017000683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS The study aimed to examine variations in the use of International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Edition (ICD-10) diagnostic categories for mental and behavioural disorders across countries, regions and income levels using data from the online World Psychiatric Association (WPA)-World Health Organization (WHO) Global Survey that examined the attitudes of psychiatrists towards the classification of mental disorders. METHODS A survey was sent to 46 psychiatric societies which are members of WPA. A total of 4887 psychiatrists participated in the survey, which asked about their use of classification, their preferred system and the categories that were used most frequently. RESULTS The majority (70.1%) of participating psychiatrists (out of 4887 psychiatrists) reported using the ICD-10 the most and using at least one diagnostic category once a week. Nine out of 44 diagnostic categories were considerably variable in terms of frequency of use across countries. These were: emotionally unstable personality disorder, borderline type; dissociative (conversion) disorder; somatoform disorders; obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD); mental and behavioural disorders due to the use of alcohol; adjustment disorder; mental and behavioural disorders due to the use of cannabinoids; dementia in Alzheimer's disease; and acute and transient psychotic disorder. The frequency of use for these nine categories was examined across WHO regions and income levels. The most striking differences across WHO regions were found for five out of these nine categories. For dissociative (conversion) disorder, use was highest for the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMRO) and non-existent for the WHO African Region. For mental and behavioural disorders due to the use of alcohol, use was lowest for EMRO. For mental and behavioural disorders due to the use of cannabinoids, use was lowest for the WHO European Region and the WHO Western Pacific Region. For OCD and somatoform disorders, use was lowest for EMRO and the WHO Southeast Asian Region. Differences in the frequency of use across income levels were statistically significant for all categories except for mental and behavioural disorders due to the use of alcohol. The most striking variations were found for acute and transient psychotic disorder, which was reported to be more commonly used among psychiatrists from countries with lower income levels. CONCLUSIONS The differences in frequency of use reported in the current study show that cross-cultural variations in psychiatric practice exist. However, whether these differences are due to the variations in prevalence, treatment-seeking behaviour and other factors, such as psychiatrist and patient characteristics as a result of culture, cannot be determined based on the findings of the study. Further research is needed to examine whether these variations are culturally determined and how that would affect the cross-cultural applicability of ICD-10 diagnostic categories.
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Exploring Professional Help Seeking in Practicing Muslim Women with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Washing Subtype in Australia. RELIGIONS 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/rel8080137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Staley D, Wand RR. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Review of the Cross-Cultural Epidemiological Literature. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/136346159503200201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Early clinical studies suggested that obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) was a rare disorder, but recent large-scale epidemiological research conducted in North America using standardized diagnostic criteria (DSM-III) report prevalence rates between 1 to 3%. A review of clinical and case reports of OCD among psychiatric population in non-Western countries reveals similar sociodemographic and clinical correlates for the disorder compared to Western findings. Epidemiological studies using translated versions of standardized diagnostic instruments and conducted in non-Western countries, report similar prevalence rates and clinical phenomenology for O CD as that found in Western settings. Methodological and measurement issues relevant to conducting valid cross- cultural psychiatric research are discussed in relationship to the diagnosis of OCD. The review concludes that OCD is generally similar in prevalence, sociodemographic characteristics and clinical features in both Western and non-Western countries for adult populations.
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Hickey JE, Pryjmachuk S, Waterman H. Mental illness research in the Gulf Cooperation Council: a scoping review. Health Res Policy Syst 2016; 14:59. [PMID: 27492156 PMCID: PMC4972953 DOI: 10.1186/s12961-016-0123-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2015] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapid growth and development in recent decades has seen mental health and mental illness emerge as priority health concerns for the Gulf Cooperation Council (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates). As a result, mental health services in the region are being redefined and expanded. However, there is a paucity of local research to guide ongoing service development. Local research is important because service users’ experience of mental illness and mental health services are linked to their sociocultural context. In order for service development to be most effective, there is a need for increased understanding of the people who use these services. This article aims to review and synthesize mental health research from the Gulf Cooperation Council. It also seeks to identify gaps in the literature and suggest directions for future research. A scoping framework was used to conduct this review. To identify studies, database searches were undertaken, regional journals were hand-searched, and reference lists of included articles were examined. Empirical studies undertaken in the Gulf Cooperation Council that reported mental health service users’ experience of mental illness were included. Framework analysis was used to synthesize results. Fifty-five studies met inclusion criteria and the following themes were identified: service preferences, illness (symptomology, perceived cause, impact), and recovery (traditional healing, family support, religion). Gaps included contradictory findings related to the supportive role of the Arabic extended family and religion, under-representation of women in study samples, and limited attention on illness management outside of the hospital setting. From this review, it is clear that the sociocultural context in the region is linked to service users’ experience of mental illness. Future research that aims to fill the identified gaps and develop and test culturally appropriate interventions will aid practice and policy development in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason E Hickey
- University of Calgary Qatar, P.O. Box 23133, Doha, Qatar. .,University of Manchester, Oxford Rd, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom.
| | - Steven Pryjmachuk
- University of Manchester, Oxford Rd, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
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Vore D, Banbury S, Lusher J. Cognitive and stress vulnerabilities towards obsessive-compulsive disorder amongst British, Iranian and Lithuanian adolescents. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/17542863.2016.1170864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Shams G, Milosevic I. Obsessive-Compulsive Cognitions, Symptoms and Religiousness in an Iranian Population. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.4236/ijcm.2013.411084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Abstract
The earliest descriptions of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) were religious, as was the understanding of their origins. With the emancipation, religion in OCD was relegated to its status today: a less common symptom of OCD in most Western societies known as scrupulosity. The frequency of scrupulosity in OCD varies in the literature from 0% to 93% of cases, and this variability seems predicated on the importance of religious belief and observance in the community examined. Despite the similarities between religious ritual and compulsions, the evidence to date that religion increases the risk of the development of OCD is scarce. Scrupulosity is presented as a classic version of OCD, with obsessions and compulsions, distress, and diminished functioning similar to those of other forms of OCD. The differentiation between normal religiosity and scrupulosity is presented, and the unique aspects of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating scrupulosity, especially in religious populations, are reviewed.
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Khoubila A, Kadri N. [Religious obsessions and religiosity]. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY. REVUE CANADIENNE DE PSYCHIATRIE 2010; 55:458-63. [PMID: 20704773 DOI: 10.1177/070674371005500709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess the prevalence of religious obsessions in a general psychiatry setting, review sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of patients with religious obsessions, and explore the relation between these obsessions and religiosity. METHOD In a general psychiatry setting (n = 1500), we have studied patients with an obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), and then in this sample, we have identified those who also had religious obsessions. RESULTS OCD was found in 9.6% (n = 144) of patients. Religious obsessions are the most common and were found in 31.3% (n = 45) of patients in this group. Forty-five subjects (n = 45) with religious obsessions were compared with 99 subjects (n = 99) with other types of obsessions. The total number of obsessions is significantly higher in patients with religious obsessions. Patients with religious obsessions have a significantly higher score at the religiosity scale. CONCLUSION These results suggest that religious obsessions are common in patients with OCD, and that they are associated with religiosity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adil Khoubila
- Docteur en médecine, Centre Psychiatrique Universitaire Ibn Rochd, Casablanca, Morocco.
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Lewis-Fernández R, Hinton DE, Laria AJ, Patterson EH, Hofmann SG, Craske MG, Stein DJ, Asnaani A, Liao B. Culture and the anxiety disorders: recommendations for DSM-V. Depress Anxiety 2010; 27:212-29. [PMID: 20037918 PMCID: PMC4337390 DOI: 10.1002/da.20647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The anxiety disorders specified in the fourth edition, text revision, of The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR) are identified universally in human societies, and also show substantial cultural particularities in prevalence and symptomatology. Possible explanations for the observed epidemiological variability include lack of measurement equivalence, true differences in prevalence, and limited validity or precision of diagnostic criteria. One central question is whether, through inadvertent "over-specification" of disorders, the post-DSM-III nosology has missed related but somewhat different presentations of the same disorder because they do not exactly fit specified criteria sets. This review canvases the mental health literature for evidence of cross-cultural limitations in DSM-IV-TR anxiety disorder criteria. METHODS Searches were conducted of the mental health literature, particularly since 1994, regarding cultural or race/ethnicity-related factors that might limit the universal applicability of the diagnostic criteria for six anxiety disorders. RESULTS Possible mismatches between the DSM criteria and the local phenomenology of the disorder in specific cultural contexts were found for three anxiety disorders in particular. These involve the unexpectedness and 10-minute crescendo criteria in Panic Disorder; the definition of social anxiety and social reference group in Social Anxiety Disorder; and the priority given to psychological symptoms of worry in Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Limited evidence was found throughout, particularly in terms of neurobiological markers, genetic risk factors, treatment response, and other DSM-V validators that could help clarify the cross-cultural applicability of criteria. CONCLUSIONS On the basis of the available data, options and preliminary recommendations for DSM-V are put forth that should be further evaluated and tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Lewis-Fernández
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University and New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York 10032, USA.
| | - Devon E. Hinton
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Amaro J. Laria
- Massachusetts School of Professional Psychology, Boston, Massachusetts
| | | | | | - Michelle G. Craske
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Dan J. Stein
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Anu Asnaani
- Department of Psychology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Betty Liao
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, California
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Sex differences in Indian patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Compr Psychiatry 2009; 50:70-5. [PMID: 19059517 DOI: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2008.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2008] [Revised: 05/11/2008] [Accepted: 05/29/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex has been postulated as one of the factors mediating heterogeneity in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). This study investigated the sex differences in OCD with respect to sociodemographics, symptom profile, and comorbidity including spectrum disorders. Two hundred thirty-one subjects diagnosed with OCD by Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, criteria were included in the study. The subjects were evaluated by extensive clinical and semistructured interviews by expert clinical psychiatrists, and diagnosis was made by consensus. Male (n = 166) and female (n = 65) subjects with OCD were compared with respect to the data obtained. Males with OCD tended to have an earlier onset and had more symmetry/religious obsessions and miscellaneous compulsions. Males also showed a tendency to have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Female subjects were more likely to be married, have cleaning compulsions and be associated with trichotillomania. The findings support the hypothesis that there are sex differences in OCD, but the results are only partly comparable with other studies, suggesting that the phenotypic expression of OCD is possibly dependent on a complex interaction among biologic, personal, and cultural factors.
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Evidence from phenomenological, family, genetic, and treatment studies from Western centers have suggested that tic-related obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) could be different from non-tic-related OCD. This study from India investigated the differences in OCD with and without tics, with respect to sociodemographics, symptom profile, and comorbidity, including obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders, to examine whether the clinical profile of tic-related OCD is similar to that reported previously. METHODS Fifty subjects with OCD and tics (chronic motor tics and Tourette syndrome) were compared with 141 OCD subjects without tics. RESULTS Subjects having OCD with tics tended to be males, and had an earlier onset of illness. They had more of symmetry/aggressive and religious obsessions, and cleaning, ordering/arranging, hoarding, and repeating compulsions and were associated with trichotillomania and hypochondraisis. Stepwise backward (Wald) regression analysis showed that an early age of onset, male gender, aggressive obsessions, cleaning compulsions, and trichotillomania were significantly associated with tic-related OCD. CONCLUSION The findings of this study from India are broadly similar to those reported previously from the West indicating the universality of differences in tic- and non-tic-related OCD. Our findings also support the existing evidence that tics contribute to the heterogeneity of OCD.
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Abstract
Epidemiological and clinical data from a variety of cultural and geographic settings on obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and many of the obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders, suggest that this is a group of disorders with a good degree of transcultural homogeneity. However, the content and themes that predominate in patients with these disorders, and the course of illness, can be shaped by cultural, ethnic, and religious experiences. Across cultures, OCD is commonly comorbid with mood, anxiety, and impulse-control disorders. However, little is known about the mechanisms by which culture and ethnicity may affect the expression of OCD and related disorders. Cross-national comparative studies exploring culturally influenced differences in clinical course, treatment outcome, including ethnogenetic differences in drug response, and prognosis are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hisato Matsunaga
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Osaka City University Medical School, Osaka, Japan
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Karadaĝ F, Oguzhanoglu NK, Ozdel O, Ateşci FC, Amuk T. OCD symptoms in a sample of Turkish patients: a phenomenological picture. Depress Anxiety 2006; 23:145-52. [PMID: 16502403 DOI: 10.1002/da.20148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the clinical features of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and the possible association between obsessive-compulsive symptoms and culture-related characteristics in a sample of Turkish patients with OCD. We studied 141 patients with OCD (according to DSM-IV criteria) consecutively admitted to our outpatient clinic during the period from February 1998 to December 2003. We used the Turkish version of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID) to interview all patients, and the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) to assess obsessive-compulsive symptoms and severity. The onset of OCD symptoms was earlier in males. Major depression was the most common comorbid disorder (30.5%). The most commonly occurring obsessions were contamination (56.7%), aggression (48.9%), and somatic (24.1%), followed by religious (19.9%), symmetry (18.4%), and sexual imagery (15.6%). Symmetry and sexual obsessions, and checking compulsions and rituals, tended to be more common in male patients. Dirt and contamination obsessions and washing compulsions were slightly more common in females. The vast majority of patients with religious obsessions (83%) and half of the patients with sexual obsessions had compulsions that included religious practices. Also, patients with sexual and religious obsessions had delayed seeking professional help.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filiz Karadaĝ
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey.
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A Cross-cultural Test of the Cognitive Theory of Obsessions and Compulsions: A Comparison of Greek, Italian, and American Individuals—a Preliminary Study. COGNITIVE THERAPY AND RESEARCH 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/s10608-006-9078-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Ghassemzadeh H, Bolhari J, Birashk B, Salavati M. Responsibility attitude in a sample of Iranian obsessive-compulsive patients. Int J Soc Psychiatry 2005; 51:13-22. [PMID: 15864971 DOI: 10.1177/0020764005053266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The study of distorted beliefs about responsibility attitude and interpretation has become the central theme in Salkovskis' (1985) and Rachman and Hodgson's (1980) models of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD). AIMS The aim of this research is to assess the responsibility attitude in Iranian OCD patients. METHODS Twenty OCD patients were selected through available sampling from the case referred to psychology clinics. Two other patient groups comprised of 20 non-OCD anxiety disorder patients and 20 non-clinical participants were also chosen as comparison groups. All participants completed the Responsibility Attitude Scale (RAS) and Responsibility Interpretation Questionnaire (RIQ). RESULTS Analyses revealed statistically significant differences between OCD group and comparison groups on both RAS and RIQ. In addition, both RAS and RIQ scores were associated with the severity of OCD assessed by the Yale-Brown scale. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that responsibility attitude and interpretations are the prominent features of OCD in Iranian patients and are associated with the severity of illness.
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Abstract
This article reviews the basic tenets of Islam, the second-most populous religion in the world. The practice of Islam can be affected by ethnic and cultural factors; therefore, the influence of various cultures (such as Arab, Pakistani, and African American) as seen in practice with Muslim children and their families is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl S Al-Mateen
- Virginia Treatment Center for Children, Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Box 980489, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298, USA.
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Abstract
Many psychiatric researchers believe that the clinical picture of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) shows little variability cross-culturally. This study examined the symptomatology and illness experience of 19 patients suffering from OCD in Bali, Indonesia. Patients were assessed using a semi-structured clinical interview. The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) was utilized for gauging symptomatology and severity of symptoms. A sub-sample of patients was interviewed using person-centered ethnographic techniques. Balinese culture strongly shaped symptomatic expression. The most common obsessional themes emphasized patients' obsessional need to know information about their social network, such as the identity and status of passers-by. Somatic obsessions and religious themes around witchcraft and spirits were also prominent. Psychiatric, indigenous and anthropological perspectives are contrasted to highlight the power and limitations of each to explain OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haggai Hermesh
- Anxiety Disorders and Behavior Therapy Unit, Petah Tikva, Israel and Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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Ghassemzadeh H, Mojtabai R, Khamseh A, Ebrahimkhani N, Issazadegan AA, Saif-Nobakht Z. Symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder in a sample of Iranian patients. Int J Soc Psychiatry 2002; 48:20-8. [PMID: 12008904 DOI: 10.1177/002076402128783055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Characteristic features of the obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) occur with remarkable consistency in different cultural settings. The content of symptoms, however, seems to vary across cultures. AIMS To examine the content of symptoms in a sample of OCD patients from Iran. METHODS In a sample of 135 patients recruited from three treatment settings the prevalence of symptoms with different contents were ranked and compared across genders. RESULTS Doubts and indecisiveness were the most common obsessions and washing the most common compulsion for the whole sample. Fears of impurity and contamination, obsessive thoughts about self-impurity and washing compulsions were more common in women, whereas blasphemous thoughts and orderliness compulsions were more common in men. CONCLUSIONS With minor differences, the pattern of symptoms with various contents in this sample was similar to that in Western settings.
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Abstract
Religion has often been thought to play a part in the genesis of some cases of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). In this study, we explored the relationship between religiosity, religious obsessions, and other clinical characteristics of OCD. Forty-five outpatients with OCD were evaluated with the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) and the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Checklist (Y-BOCC) as well as the Religious Practices Index (RPI), which was developed for this study. On the basis of these evaluations, 42% of the patients were found to have religious obsessions. Despite differences in the frequency of religious obsessions found in this study compared with others, a factor analysis revealed the symptom dimensions to be similar to those found in other OCD samples. There was no significant difference in the overall severity of obsessions and compulsions between patients with and without religious obsessions. RPI scores did not differ significantly between groups. We failed to find a relationship between RPI scores or religious obsessions and any particular type of obsession or compulsion. A logistic regression analysis revealed that the sole predictor of the presence of religious obsessions was a higher number of types of obsessions. In conclusion, we failed to find a conclusive relationship between religiosity and any other clinical feature of OCD, including the presence of religious obsessions. On the other hand, we showed that the patients who tend to have a variety of obsessions are more likely also to have religious obsessions. Thus, religion appears to be one more arena where OCD expresses itself, rather than being a determinant of the disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Tek
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center and Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland, P.O. Box 21246, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA.
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Al-Krenawi A, Graham JR, Ophir M, Kandah J. Ethnic and gender differences in mental health utilization: the case of Muslim Jordanian and Moroccan Jewish Israeli out-patient psychiatric patients. Int J Soc Psychiatry 2001; 47:42-54. [PMID: 11589335 DOI: 10.1177/002076400104700305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
A sample of 148 (87 Jordanian [61 male, 26 female] and 61 Israeli [26 male, 35 female]) was selected from a psychiatric clinic in Ashdod Israel and Zarka Jordan, using convenience sampling methodology over a 12 month period in late 1997 and early 1998. A revised Hopkins Symptom Checklist: A Self-Report Symptom Inventory (HSCL) was translated into Arabic and Hebrew and distributed to subjects; additional questions explored demographic characteristics, forms of received treatment, patient perceptions of treatment efficacy, patient use of traditional healers, and patient explanation of etiology. Data revealed that there were differences in dimensions between the 2 groups based on nationality and gender. More Jordanians than Israelis expected medications as the main treatment, and unlike Israelis, no Jordanian patients received individual psychotherapy. Israelis expected medications, advice, directions, and instructions from psychiatrists. Both ethnic groups consulted a wide array of traditional healers, although precise types of healers varied according to gender and ethnicity. Israeli subjects gave more diverse explanations of mental health etiologies: physical, family, divorce, economic, unemployment; whereas Jordanians tended to emphasize divine and spiritual sources. Implications for psychiatric practice are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Al-Krenawi
- Department of Social Work, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
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Albert U, Maina G, Bogetto F, Ravizza L. The role of recent life events in the onset of obsessive-compulsive disorder. CNS Spectr 2000; 5:44-50. [PMID: 17545964 DOI: 10.1017/s109285290000780x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Although many investigations into the onset of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) suggest the occurrence of potential life events as triggering factors, such an association has not been well studied to date. The purpose of the present paper is to review the literature on OCD onset in order to determine whether OCD is triggered by recent life events, what specific events may serve as triggers, and the clinical and research implications of these factors. Overall, the available studies do not consistently support the theory that OCD is triggered by specific antecedent life events. However, there is a body of evidence to support the theory that the specific life events of pregnancy and birth of a child can trigger OCD. This apparent association has led to the investigation of certain neurohormonal factors, including changes in estrogen or oxytocin levels, that may be of etiopathogenetic significance in OCD. Confirming such associations may allow clinicians to provide more targeted preventive and therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Albert
- Department of Neurosciences, Psychiatric Unit, the University of Turin, Italy
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Abstract
The past decade has seen tremendous strides in the knowledge about the cause, epidemiology, and treatment of OCD. Research on clinical characteristics of the disorder have focused on several areas, including identification of subtypes, the role of insight, and patterns of comorbidity. Several studies looking at course of illness in OCD have found that, for adults with this disorder, the course is usually chronic, but increasing evidence shows that a subtype of OCD characterized by an episodic course may exist, and research is focusing on delineating that subtype more specifically. Another hypothesized subtype, which may be related to rheumatic fever, involves patients with both OCD and chronic tic disorders. Certain obsessions and compulsions are more common in patients with these two disorders; together with the familial transmission and treatment data, this suggests that these patients may represent a meaningful subtype. Another area of focus over the past 10 years has been the role of insight. Increasing evidence shows that a range of insight exists in patients with OCD. Whether patients with poor insight have a different treatment response or different course than do patients with better insight remains to be seen. Finally, comorbidity between OCD and schizophrenia has been an area of interest. Emerging evidence shows that obsessions and compulsions are more common in patients with schizophrenia than was previously thought. The effect of obsessions and compulsions on schizophrenia in terms of treatment response and course is being investigated. Despite tremendous advances in treatment of this potentially debilitating disorder, a significant percentage of patients do not respond to standard treatment. Continued research to identify meaningful subtypes in OCD is necessary to unravel important questions concerning cause and to develop specific treatment strategies for refractory patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Attiullah
- Department of Psychiatry, Brown University School of Medicine, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
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Maltby J. Frequent and regular church attendance as a religiousritual: further investigation of the relationship betweenpublic aspects of religiosity and obsessional symptoms. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s0191-8869(98)00225-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Fiske AP, Haslam N. Is obsessive-compulsive disorder a pathology of the human disposition to perform socially meaningful rituals? Evidence of similar content. J Nerv Ment Dis 1997; 185:211-22. [PMID: 9114806 DOI: 10.1097/00005053-199704000-00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the theory that obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a pathology of the human disposition to perform culturally meaningful social rituals. We tested the hypothesis that the same actions and thoughts that are ego-dystonic in OCD are valued when they are appropriately performed in socially legitimated rituals. Two coders analyzed ethnographic descriptions of rituals, work, and another activity in each of 52 cultures. The coders recorded the presence or absence of 49 features of OCD and 19 features of other psychopathologies. The features of OCD were more likely to be present and occurred more frequently in rituals than in either control; rituals also contained more diverse kinds of OCD features. The features of other psychopathologies were less likely to be present and were less numerous in rituals than the features of OCD. Analysis of variance showed that OCD features discriminate between rituals and controls better than the features of other psychopathologies. These results suggest that there could be a psychological mechanism that operates normally in rituals, which can lead to OCD when it becomes hyperactivated.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Fiske
- Department of Psychology, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania 19010-2899, USA.
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Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is seen in many contrasting cultures but it is not known if the form of the disorder varies between these cultures. There have been anecdotal case reports where religion appeared to play a significant aetiological role in the disorder but the relationship between religion and OCD has not previously been systematically studied. This study was a retrospective, casenote study comparing the country of birth and religious affiliation of three groups of 50 patients. Its aim was to investigate the aetiological role played by religion in the development of OCD. The groups were patients with OCD from a specialist behavioural-cognitive unit, patients assessed in a specialist psycho-dynamic psychotherapy department and patients attending a general adult psychiatry outpatient department. More patients with OCD affiliated themselves with a religion as opposed to either of the other two groups. This difference disappeared when the type of religion was taken into account so that no conclusive relationship between OCD and religion could be identified. The findings do not diminish the importance of religion in the development of OCD in some individuals and suggest that future research in this area should include examination of the rigidity of upbringing and personal perception of the experience of strict rules or imposed religious practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- F J Raphael
- Department of Mental Health Sciences, St. George's Hospital Medical School, Tooting, London, England
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Abstract
Clinical features of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) were found to be similar in various cultures. However, there was no report about phenomenology of this disorder from Moslem or Arab cultures. This study is a review of 45 cases who presented as a psychiatric clinic at a general university hospital in Saudi Arabia. The findings were found to be similar to those reported in Western studies with regard to age of onset, level of functioning, type of onset, course, and co-morbidity. Religious obsessions and compulsions were found to be the most common clinical features. Findings are explained in cultural terms.
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Affiliation(s)
- A S Al-Sabaie
- Division of Psychiatry, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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