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Grewal T, Nguyen MKL, Buechler C. Cholesterol and COVID-19-therapeutic opportunities at the host/virus interface during cell entry. Life Sci Alliance 2024; 7:e202302453. [PMID: 38388172 PMCID: PMC10883773 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202302453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The rapid development of vaccines to combat severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections has been critical to reduce the severity of COVID-19. However, the continuous emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 subtypes highlights the need to develop additional approaches that oppose viral infections. Targeting host factors that support virus entry, replication, and propagation provide opportunities to lower SARS-CoV-2 infection rates and improve COVID-19 outcome. This includes cellular cholesterol, which is critical for viral spike proteins to capture the host machinery for SARS-CoV-2 cell entry. Once endocytosed, exit of SARS-CoV-2 from the late endosomal/lysosomal compartment occurs in a cholesterol-sensitive manner. In addition, effective release of new viral particles also requires cholesterol. Hence, cholesterol-lowering statins, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 antibodies, and ezetimibe have revealed potential to protect against COVID-19. In addition, pharmacological inhibition of cholesterol exiting late endosomes/lysosomes identified drug candidates, including antifungals, to block SARS-CoV-2 infection. This review describes the multiple roles of cholesterol at the cell surface and endolysosomes for SARS-CoV-2 entry and the potential of drugs targeting cholesterol homeostasis to reduce SARS-CoV-2 infectivity and COVID-19 disease severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Grewal
- https://ror.org/0384j8v12 School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Mai Khanh Linh Nguyen
- https://ror.org/0384j8v12 School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Christa Buechler
- https://ror.org/01226dv09 Department of Internal Medicine I, Regensburg University Hospital, Regensburg, Germany
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Chen Z, Shao W, Li Y, Zhang X, Geng Y, Ma X, Tao B, Ma Y, Yi C, Zhang B, Zhang R, Lin J, Chen J. Inhibition of PCSK9 prevents and alleviates cholesterol gallstones through PPARα-mediated CYP7A1 activation. Metabolism 2024; 152:155774. [PMID: 38191052 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2023.155774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/31/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Dysregulated cholesterol metabolism is the major factor responsible for cholesterol gallstones (CGS). Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) plays a critical role in cholesterol homeostasis and its inhibitors secure approval for treating various cholesterol metabolic disorders such as hypercholesterolemia and cardiovascular diseases, but its role in CGS remains unclear. Our study aims to clarify mechanisms by which PCSK9 promotes CGS formation and explore the application of the PCSK9 inhibitor, alirocumab, in preventing and treating CGS. APPROACH & RESULTS The expressions of PCSK9 were notably increased in CGS patients' serum, bile, and liver tissues compared to those without gallstones. Moreover, among CGS patients, hepatic PCSK9 was positively correlated with hepatic cholesterol and negatively correlated with hepatic bile acids (BAs), suggesting PCSK9 was involved in disrupted hepatic cholesterol metabolism related to CGS. Mechanistically, in vitro experiments demonstrated that inhibition of PCSK9 enhanced nuclear expression of PPARα by diminishing its lysosomal degradation and subsequently activated CYP7A1 transcription. Finally, inhibition of PCSK9 prevented CGS formation and dissolved the existing stones in CGS mice by elevating the conversion of cholesterol into BAs through PPARα-mediated CYP7A1 activation. Additionally, serum PCSK9 level may function as a prognostic signature to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of PCSK9 inhibitors. CONCLUSIONS Inhibition of PCSK9 exerts preventive and therapeutic effects on CGS by activating PPARα-mediated CYP7A1 expression and facilitating the conversion of cholesterol into BAs, which highlights the potential of PCSK9 inhibition as a promising candidate for preventing and treating CGS in clinical applications. IMPACT AND IMPLICATIONS PCSK9 plays a pivotal role in cholesterol metabolism and its inhibitors are approved for clinical use in cardiovascular diseases. Our study observes inhibition of PCSK9 prevents and dissolves CGS by activating PPARα-mediated CYP7A1 expression and facilitating the conversion of cholesterol into BAs. Mechanistically, PCSK9 inhibition enhanced the nuclear expression of PPARα by diminishing its lysosomal degradation and subsequently activated CYP7A1 transcription. Our study sheds light on the new function and mechanism of PCSK9 in CGS, providing a novel preventive and therapeutic target with potential clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenmei Chen
- Hepatobiliary Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Urumqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China; Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Urumqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Weiqing Shao
- Hepatobiliary Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Urumqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Yitong Li
- Hepatobiliary Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Urumqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Xiandi Zhang
- Department of Ultrasound, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Urumqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Yan Geng
- Hepatobiliary Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Urumqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Xiaochen Ma
- Hepatobiliary Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Urumqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Baorui Tao
- Hepatobiliary Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Urumqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Yue Ma
- Hepatobiliary Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Urumqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Chenhe Yi
- Hepatobiliary Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Urumqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Bo Zhang
- Hepatobiliary Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Urumqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Rui Zhang
- Hepatobiliary Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Urumqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Jing Lin
- Hepatobiliary Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Urumqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China.
| | - Jinhong Chen
- Hepatobiliary Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Urumqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China.
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Yu Cai Lim M, Kiat Ho H. Pharmacological modulation of cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) as a therapeutic strategy for hypercholesterolemia. Biochem Pharmacol 2024; 220:115985. [PMID: 38154545 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Despite the availability of many therapeutic options, the prevalence of hypercholesterolemia remains high. There exists a significant unmet medical need for novel drugs and/or treatment combinations to effectively combat hypercholesterolemia while minimizing adverse reactions. The modulation of cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) expression via perturbation of the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) - dependent pathways, primarily FXR/small heterodimer partner (SHP) and FXR/ fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-19/ fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR)-4 pathways, presents as a potential option to lower cholesterol levels. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the important role that CYP7A1 plays in cholesterol homeostasis and how its expression can be exploited to assert differential control of bile acid synthesis and cholesterol metabolism. Additionally, the paper also summarizes the current therapeutic options for hypercholesterolemia, and positions modulators of CYP7A1 expression, namely FGFR4 inhibitors and FXR antagonists, as emerging and distinct pharmacological agents to complement and diversify the treatment regime. Their mechanistic and clinical considerations are also extensively described to interrogate the benefits and risks associated with using FXR-mediating agents, either singularly or in combination with recognised agents such as statins to target hypercholesterolemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Yu Cai Lim
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Han Kiat Ho
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543, Singapore.
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Caparrós-Martín JA, Maher P, Ward NC, Saladié M, Agudelo-Romero P, Stick SM, Chan DC, Watts GF, O’Gara F. An Analysis of the Gut Microbiota and Related Metabolites following PCSK9 Inhibition in Statin-Treated Patients with Elevated Levels of Lipoprotein(a). Microorganisms 2024; 12:170. [PMID: 38257996 PMCID: PMC10818477 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12010170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 12/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) is a leading cause of global mortality, often associated with high blood levels of LDL cholesterol (LDL-c). Medications like statins and PCSK9 inhibitors, are used to manage LDL-c levels and reduce ASCVD risk. Recent findings connect the gut microbiota and its metabolites to ASCVD development. We showed that statins modulate the gut microbiota including the production of microbial metabolites involved in the regulation of cholesterol metabolism such as short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and bile acids (BAs). Whether this pleiotropic effect of statins is associated with their antimicrobial properties or it is secondary to the modulation of cholesterol metabolism in the host is unknown. In this observational study, we evaluated whether alirocumab, a PCSK9 inhibitor administered subcutaneously, alters the stool-associated microbiota and the profiles of SCFAs and BAs. METHODS We used stool and plasma collected from patients enrolled in a single-sequence study using alirocumab. Microbial DNA was extracted from stool, and the bacterial component of the gut microbiota profiled following an amplicon sequencing strategy targeting the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene. Bile acids and SCFAs were profiled and quantified in stool and plasma using mass spectrometry. RESULTS Treatment with alirocumab did not alter bacterial alpha (Shannon index, p = 0.74) or beta diversity (PERMANOVA, p = 0.89) in feces. Similarly, circulating levels of SCFAs (mean difference (95% confidence interval (CI)), 8.12 [-7.15-23.36] µM, p = 0.25) and BAs (mean difference (95% CI), 0.04 [-0.11-0.19] log10(nmol mg-1 feces), p = 0.56) were equivalent regardless of PCSK9 inhibition. Alirocumab therapy was associated with increased concentration of BAs in feces (mean difference (95% CI), 0.20 [0.05-0.34] log10(nmol mg-1 feces), p = 0.01). CONCLUSION In statin-treated patients, the use of alirocumab to inhibit PCSK9 leads to elevated levels of fecal BAs without altering the bacterial population of the gut microbiota. The association of alirocumab with increased fecal BA concentration suggests an additional mechanism for the cholesterol-lowering effect of PCSK9 inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose A. Caparrós-Martín
- Wal-yan Respiratory Research Centre, Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute (CHIRI), Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Patrice Maher
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute (CHIRI), Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Natalie C. Ward
- Dobney Hypertension Centre, Medical School, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Montserrat Saladié
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute (CHIRI), Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Patricia Agudelo-Romero
- Wal-yan Respiratory Research Centre, Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
- The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Stephen M. Stick
- Wal-yan Respiratory Research Centre, Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
- The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Princess Margaret Hospital for Children, Perth, WA 6008, Australia
| | - Dick C. Chan
- Medical School, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Gerald F. Watts
- Medical School, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
- Cardiometabolic Service, Departments of Cardiology and Internal Medicine, Royal Perth Hospital, Perth, WA 6000, Australia
| | - Fergal O’Gara
- Wal-yan Respiratory Research Centre, Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute (CHIRI), Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia
- BIOMERIT Research Centre, School of Microbiology, University College Cork, T12 XF62 Cork, Ireland
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Ning L, Zou Y, Li S, Cao Y, Xu B, Zhang S, Cai Y. Anti-PCSK9 Treatment Attenuates Liver Fibrosis via Inhibiting Hypoxia-Induced Autophagy in Hepatocytes. Inflammation 2023; 46:2102-2119. [PMID: 37466835 PMCID: PMC10673768 DOI: 10.1007/s10753-023-01865-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
Hypoxia and its induced autophagy are involved in the initiation and progression of liver fibrosis. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) has been recognized as a potential regulator of autophagy. Our previously reported study found that PCSK9 expression increased in liver fibrosis and that anti-PCSK9 treatment alleviated liver injury. This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of anti-PCSK9 treatment on liver fibrosis by inhibiting hypoxia-induced autophagy. Carbon tetrachloride-induced mouse liver fibrosis and mouse hepatocyte line AML12, cultured under the hypoxic condition, were established to undergo PCSK9 inhibition. The degree of liver fibrosis was shown with histological staining. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation was detected by flow cytometry. The expression of PCSK9, hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), and autophagy-related proteins was examined using Western blot. The autophagic flux was assessed under immunofluorescence and transmission electron microscope. The mouse liver samples were investigated via RNA-sequencing to explore the underlying signaling pathway. The results showed that PCSK9 expression was upregulated with the development of liver fibrosis, which was accompanied by enhanced autophagy. In vitro data verified that PCSK9 increased via hypoxia and inflammation, accompanied by the hypoxia-induced autophagy increased. Then, the validation was acquired of the bidirectional interaction of hypoxia-ROS and PCSK9. The hypoxia reversal attenuated PCSK9 expression and autophagy. Additionally, anti-PCSK9 treatment alleviated liver inflammation and fibrosis, reducing hypoxia and autophagy in vivo. In mechanism, the AMPK/mTOR/ULK1 signaling pathway was identified as a target for anti-PCSK9 therapy. In conclusion, anti-PCSK9 treatment could alleviate liver inflammation and fibrosis by regulating AMPK/mTOR/ULK1 signaling pathway to reduce hypoxia-induced autophagy in hepatocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liuxin Ning
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yanting Zou
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Shuyu Li
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yue Cao
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Beili Xu
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Shuncai Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yu Cai
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Shanghai Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai, 200032, China.
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6
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Li W, Liu H, Liang J, Wang T, Liu J, Pi X, Zou W, Qu L. Effects of Atorvastatin on Bile Acid Metabolism in High-fat Diet-fed ApoE -/- Mice. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2023; 81:454-462. [PMID: 36995080 DOI: 10.1097/fjc.0000000000001425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Statins are considered as the cornerstone of the prevention and treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, where pleiotropic effects are thought to contribute greatly in addition to the lipid-lowering effect. Bile acid metabolism has been gradually reported to be involved in the antihyperlipidemic and antiatherosclerotic effects of statins, but with inconsistent results and few studies carried out on animal models of atherosclerosis. The study aimed to examine the possible role of bile acid metabolism in the lipid-lowering and antiatherosclerotic effects of atorvastatin (ATO) in high-fat diet-fed ApoE -/- mice. The results showed that the levels of liver and faecal TC as well as ileal and faecal TBA were significantly increased in mice of the model group after 20 weeks of high-fat diet feeding compared with the control group, with significantly downregulated mRNA expression of liver LXR-α, CYP7A1, BSEP, and NTCP. ATO treatment further increased the levels of ileal and faecal TBA and faecal TC, but no obvious effect was observed on serum and liver TBA. In addition, ATO significantly reversed the mRNA levels of liver CYP7A1 and NTCP, and no obvious changes were observed in the expression of LXR-α and BSEP. Our study suggested that statins may enhance the synthesis of bile acids and facilitate the reabsorption of bile acids from the ileum via portal into the liver, possibly through the upregulation of the expression of CYP7A1 and NTCP. The results are helpful in enriching the theoretical basis for the clinical use of statins and have good translational value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China; and
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Honglin Liu
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Jiyi Liang
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Tao Wang
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Jia Liu
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaofeng Pi
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Wenjun Zou
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Liping Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China; and
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
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7
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A novel, orally bioavailable, small-molecule inhibitor of PCSK9 with significant cholesterol-lowering properties in vivo. J Lipid Res 2022; 63:100293. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jlr.2022.100293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
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Abstract
This article reviews the discovery of PCSK9, its structure-function characteristics, and its presently known and proposed novel biological functions. The major critical function of PCSK9 deduced from human and mouse studies, as well as cellular and structural analyses, is its role in increasing the levels of circulating low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol (LDLc), via its ability to enhance the sorting and escort of the cell surface LDL receptor (LDLR) to lysosomes. This implicates the binding of the catalytic domain of PCSK9 to the EGF-A domain of the LDLR. This also requires the presence of the C-terminal Cys/His-rich domain, its binding to the secreted cytosolic cyclase associated protein 1, and possibly another membrane-bound "protein X". Curiously, in PCSK9-deficient mice, an alternative to the downregulation of the surface levels of the LDLR by PCSK9 is taking place in the liver of female mice in a 17β-estradiol-dependent manner by still an unknown mechanism. Recent studies have extended our understanding of the biological functions of PCSK9, namely its implication in septic shock, vascular inflammation, viral infections (Dengue; SARS-CoV-2) or immune checkpoint modulation in cancer via the regulation of the cell surface levels of the T-cell receptor and MHC-I, which govern the antitumoral activity of CD8+ T cells. Because PCSK9 inhibition may be advantageous in these processes, the availability of injectable safe PCSK9 inhibitors that reduces by 50% to 60% LDLc above the effect of statins is highly valuable. Indeed, injectable PCSK9 monoclonal antibody or small interfering RNA could be added to current immunotherapies in cancer/metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabil G Seidah
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology, Montreal Clinical Research Institute (IRCM, affiliated to the University of Montreal), Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Annik Prat
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology, Montreal Clinical Research Institute (IRCM, affiliated to the University of Montreal), Montreal, QC, Canada
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Frigerio J, Tedesco E, Benetti F, Insolia V, Nicotra G, Mezzasalma V, Pagliari S, Labra M, Campone L. Anticholesterolemic Activity of Three Vegetal Extracts (Artichoke, Caigua, and Fenugreek) and Their Unique Blend. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:726199. [PMID: 34887750 PMCID: PMC8650624 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.726199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatic-related diseases, in particular hyperlipidemia and hypercholesterolemia, are a thorn on the side of the national health institutes around the globe. Indeed, liver lipid and cholesterol dysregulation could lead to atherosclerotic plaque formation and cardiovascular diseases. Currently, statin administration and monacolin K consumption are the main therapies proposed to counter this alarming connection, but relevant side effects are known. To overcome this issue, safe nutraceutical formulations and/or vegetal extracts, endowed with anticholesterolemic activity, could be instrumental in hypercholesterolemia prevention and treatment. In the present work, the anticholesterolemic efficacy of three vegetal extracts used in traditional medicine (artichoke, caigua, and fenugreek), their unique blend (ACFB), and the monacolin K-containing red yeast extract (RYR), was investigated with an in vitro approach based on hepatic cell line HepG2. The impact on cholesterol of the three extracts, their blend, and RYR were investigated by determining hepatocyte total and free cholesterol and bile acids biosynthesis. According to our results, the anticholesterolemic activity of the vegetal extracts was confirmed, and a novel choleretic activity of caigua extract was evidenced. ACFB showed to be safer than RYR while showing a similar effect on total and free cholesterol and bile acids synthesis compared to it. The anticholesterolemic activity of the blend was obtained with lower vegetal extract concentrations compared with the single vegetal extract, potentially indicating an additive effect between the extracts. In conclusion, the vegetal extracts and their blend, ACFB, are safe and are endowed with anticholesterolemic activity, potentially providing complementary therapies to the statin-based ones for hyperlipidemia and hypercholesterolemia-related complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Frigerio
- FEM2-Ambiente, Milano, Italy
- Zooplantlab, Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
| | - Erik Tedesco
- ECSIN-European Center for the Sustainable Impact of Nanotechnology, ECAMRICERT SRL, Padova, Italy
| | - Federico Benetti
- ECSIN-European Center for the Sustainable Impact of Nanotechnology, ECAMRICERT SRL, Padova, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Stefania Pagliari
- Zooplantlab, Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
| | - Massimo Labra
- Zooplantlab, Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
| | - Luca Campone
- Zooplantlab, Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
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10
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Atorvastatin Modulates Bile Acid Homeostasis in Mice with Diet-Induced Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22126468. [PMID: 34208774 PMCID: PMC8235314 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22126468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Bile acids (BA) play a significant role in the pathophysiology of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). The present study evaluates the modulation of bile acid metabolomics by atorvastatin, a cholesterol-lowering agent commonly used to treat cardiovascular complications accompanying NASH. NASH was induced in mice by 24 weeks of consuming a high–saturated fat, high-fructose, and high-cholesterol diet (F), with atorvastatin administered orally (20 mg/kg/day) during the last three weeks. Biochemical and histological analyses confirmed the effectiveness of the F diet in inducing NASH. Untreated NASH animals had significantly reduced biliary secretion of BA and increased fecal excretion of BA via decreased apical sodium-dependent bile salt transporter (Asbt)-mediated reabsorption. Atorvastatin decreased liver steatosis and inflammation in NASH animals consistently with a reduction in crucial lipogenic enzyme stearoyl–coenzyme A (CoA) desaturase-1 and nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B-cell pro-inflammatory signaling, respectively. In this group, atorvastatin also uniformly enhanced plasma concentration, biliary secretion and fecal excretion of the secondary BA, deoxycholic acid (DCA). However, in the chow diet–fed animals, atorvastatin decreased plasma concentrations of BA, and reduced BA biliary secretions. These changes stemmed primarily from the increased fecal excretion of BA resulting from the reduced Asbt-mediated BA reabsorption in the ileum and suppression of synthesis in the liver. In conclusion, our results reveal that atorvastatin significantly modulates BA metabolomics by altering their intestinal processing and liver synthesis in control and NASH mice.
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11
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Impact of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 inhibition with evolocumab on the postprandial responses of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins in type II diabetic subjects. J Clin Lipidol 2019; 14:77-87. [PMID: 31917184 DOI: 10.1016/j.jacl.2019.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Revised: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Monoclonal antibodies to proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) significantly lower the levels of low-density lipoprotein and very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), but their effect on postprandial lipoprotein metabolism in dyslipidemic subjects is unclear. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to investigate the effects of evolocumab on postprandial lipid responses, ectopic fat depots, whole-body cholesterol synthesis, hepatic lipogenesis, and fat oxidation in patients with type II diabetes. METHODS The trial was a single-phase, nonrandomized study of 12-week treatment with evolocumab 140 mg subcutaneously every 2 weeks in 15 patients with type II diabetes on background statin therapy. Cardiometabolic responses to a high-fat mixed meal were assessed before and at the end of the intervention period. RESULTS Evolocumab treatment reduced significantly postprandial rises in plasma total triglyceride (by 21%; P < .0001) and VLDL1 triglyceride (by 15%; P = .018), but the increase in chylomicron triglyceride after the meal was not significantly perturbed (P = .053). There were reduced postprandial responses in plasma total apolipoprotein C-III (by 14%; P < .0001) and apolipoprotein B-48 concentration (by 17%; P = .0046) and in "remnant-like particles" cholesterol (by 29%; P < .0001) on the PCSK9 inhibitor. Treatment reduced the steady-state (ie, fasting and postprandial) concentrations of VLDL2 cholesterol by 50% (P < .0001) and VLDL2 triglyceride by 29% (P < .0001), in addition to the 78% reduction of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (P < .001). The changes in apolipoprotein C-III associated significantly with reduction in postprandial responses of remnant-like particles cholesterol and triglyceride-rich lipoprotein cholesterol. Evolocumab therapy did not influence liver fat accumulation, hepatic de novo lipogenesis, or fasting β-hydroxybutyrate but did increase total body cholesterol synthesis (P < .01). CONCLUSION Evolocumab treatment improved postprandial responses of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and measures of cholesterol-enriched remnant particles in type II diabetic subjects. These results indicate that postprandial phenomena need to be taken into account in assessing the full range of actions of PCSK9 inhibitors in dyslipidemic individuals.
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12
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Rendic SP, Peter Guengerich F. Human cytochrome P450 enzymes 5-51 as targets of drugs and natural and environmental compounds: mechanisms, induction, and inhibition - toxic effects and benefits. Drug Metab Rev 2019; 50:256-342. [PMID: 30717606 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2018.1483401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 (P450, CYP) enzymes have long been of interest due to their roles in the metabolism of drugs, pesticides, pro-carcinogens, and other xenobiotic chemicals. They have also been of interest due to their very critical roles in the biosynthesis and metabolism of steroids, vitamins, and certain eicosanoids. This review covers the 22 (of the total of 57) human P450s in Families 5-51 and their substrate selectivity. Furthermore, included is information and references regarding inducibility, inhibition, and (in some cases) stimulation by chemicals. We update and discuss important aspects of each of these 22 P450s and questions that remain open.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- b Department of Biochemistry , Vanderbilt University School of Medicine , Nashville , TN , USA
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13
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Harshman SG, Shea MK, Fu X, Grusak MA, Smith D, Lamon-Fava S, Kuliopulos A, Greenberg A, Booth SL. Atorvastatin Decreases Renal Menaquinone-4 Formation in C57BL/6 Male Mice. J Nutr 2019; 149:416-421. [PMID: 30753659 PMCID: PMC6398385 DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxy290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Revised: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Menaquinone-4 (MK4), a vitamin K metabolite, is converted from phylloquinone through a process that requires intermediates of endogenous cholesterol production. Recent evidence suggests that MK4 is involved in kidney function. OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of atorvastatin treatment on MK4 formation in young and old male mice. METHODS C57BL/6 male mice (4-mo-old and 20-mo-old) were randomly assigned to either a diet containing 300 mg atorvastatin/kg with 3 mg phylloquinone/kg or a control diet containing 3 mg phylloquinone/kg for 8 wk. During week 8, all mice received deuterium-labeled phylloquinone in the diet. Labeled and unlabeled phylloquinone and MK4 in liver, kidney, brain, and intestine were measured by atmospheric pressure chemical ionization LC/MS. 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase gene expression was quantified by reverse transcriptase-PCR. Tissue MK4 and phylloquinone concentrations were compared between atorvastatin treatment groups with use of general linear models. RESULTS There was no age-treatment interaction on MK4 tissue concentrations. In atorvastatin-treated mice, total MK4 and percentage of deuterium-labeled MK4 in kidney were both approximately 45% lower compared to values in mice not given atorvastatin (all P < 0.05). MK4 concentrations did not differ between groups in any other tissue measured. CONCLUSION In male mice, atorvastatin reduced endogenous MK4 formation in the kidney, but not other organs. These observations are consistent with our hypothesis that cholesterol metabolism is involved in the generation of MK4. Further research is needed to understand potential regulatory mechanisms and the unique functions of MK4 in the kidney.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - M Kyla Shea
- Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging
| | - Xueyan Fu
- Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging
| | - Michael A Grusak
- USDA/ARS Red River Valley Agricultural Research Center, Fargo, ND
| | - Donald Smith
- Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging
| | | | - Athan Kuliopulos
- Sackler School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University, Boston, MA
| | | | - Sarah L Booth
- Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging,Address correspondence to SLB (e-mail: )
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14
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Ahmadi K, Wulansari A, Subroto Y, Estiasih T. Lipid profile improvement of food products containing bioactive compounds from unsaponifiable matters of palm fatty acid distillate in hypercholesterolemia rats. MEDITERRANEAN JOURNAL OF NUTRITION AND METABOLISM 2018. [DOI: 10.3233/mnm-18201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Unsaponifiable matters (USM) from palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) contains vitamin E (mainly tocotrienols), phytosterols, and squalene that have ability to reduce blood cholesterol. Fortification of USM into food products is a way for hypercholesterolemia management. OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated effects of fortification of USM from PFAD into instant noodle, bread, and biscuit on lipid profile improvement of hypercholesterolemia rats. It was also aimed to compare the effects of different type of foods as USM carrier that represented different processing steps and nutritional composition. METHODS: Rats were divided into control-standard diet and atherogenic diet fed groups, and 6 hypercholesterolemia groups fed by instant noodle, plain bread, and biscuit with 1% USM fortification and without fortification for 8 weeks. Lipid profile (total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL cholesterol, and HDL cholesterol) was analysed at week 0, 4, and 8. Hepatic and fecal cholesterol and bile acid were also examined at the end of experiment to elucidate some mechanism of cholesterol lowering due to USM fortified foods administration. RESULTS: Some bioactive compounds lost during USM fortified food preparation and the highest retention was found in biscuit. Lipid profile improvement was indicated by reduction of total cholesterol, triglyceride, and LDL cholesterol, meanwhile HDL cholesterol increased. Type of fortified foods affected the level of alteration of lipid profile. Degree of lipid profile improvement was affected by nutritional composition of fortified foods, food intake of the rats, and level of bioactive content. Bioactive compounds in USM fortified foods inhibited cholesterol absorption that indicated by higher fecal cholesterol and bile acid compared to atherogenic diet fed group. Modulation of cholesterol synthesis was likely to occur that indicated by lower hepatic cholesterol and higher bile acids. CONCLUSIONS: Feeding of USM fortified food products improved lipid profile of hypercholesterolemia rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kgs Ahmadi
- Department of Agroindustry Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Tribhuwana Tunggadewi University, Indonesia
| | - Angela Wulansari
- Master Program of Agricultural Product Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Brawijaya University, Indonesia
| | - Yunianta Subroto
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Brawijaya University, Indonesia
| | - Teti Estiasih
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Brawijaya University, Indonesia
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15
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Papazyan R, Liu X, Liu J, Dong B, Plummer EM, Lewis RD, Roth JD, Young MA. FXR activation by obeticholic acid or nonsteroidal agonists induces a human-like lipoprotein cholesterol change in mice with humanized chimeric liver. J Lipid Res 2018; 59:982-993. [PMID: 29559521 PMCID: PMC5983391 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m081935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Revised: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Obeticholic acid (OCA) is a selective farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonist that regulates bile acid and lipid metabolism. FXR activation induces distinct changes in circulating cholesterol among animal models and humans. The mechanistic basis of these effects has been elusive because of difficulties in studying lipoprotein homeostasis in mice, which predominantly package circulating cholesterol in HDLs. Here, we tested the effects of OCA in chimeric mice whose livers are mostly composed (≥80%) of human hepatocytes. Chimeric mice exhibited a human-like ratio of serum LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) to HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) at baseline. OCA treatment in chimeric mice increased circulating LDL-C and decreased circulating HDL-C levels, demonstrating that these mice closely model the cholesterol effects of FXR activation in humans. Mechanistically, OCA treatment increased hepatic cholesterol in chimeric mice but not in control mice. This increase correlated with decreased SREBP-2 activity and target gene expression, including a significant reduction in LDL receptor protein. Cotreatment with atorvastatin reduced total cholesterol, rescued LDL receptor protein levels, and normalized serum LDL-C. Treatment with two clinically relevant nonsteroidal FXR agonists elicited similar lipoprotein and hepatic changes in chimeric mice, suggesting that the increase in circulating LDL-C is a class effect of FXR activation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Xueqing Liu
- Intercept Pharmaceuticals, Inc., San Diego, CA 92121
| | - Jingwen Liu
- Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA 94304
| | - Bin Dong
- Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA 94304
| | | | | | | | - Mark A Young
- Intercept Pharmaceuticals, Inc., San Diego, CA 92121.
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16
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Li YX, Gong XH, Liu MC, Peng C, Li P, Wang YT. Investigation of Liver Injury of Polygonum multiflorum Thunb. in Rats by Metabolomics and Traditional Approaches. Front Pharmacol 2017; 8:791. [PMID: 29163173 PMCID: PMC5672018 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Liver injury induced by Polygonum multiflorum Thunb. (PM) have been reported since 2006, which aroused widespread concern. However, the toxicity mechanism of PM liver injury remained unclear. In this study, the mechanism of liver injury induced by different doses of PM after long-term administration was investigated in rats by metabolomics and traditional approaches. Rats were randomly divided into control group and PM groups. PM groups were oral administered PM of low (10 g/kg), medium (20 g/kg), high (40 g/kg) dose, while control group was administered distilled water. After 28 days of continuous administration, the serum biochemical indexes in the control and three PM groups were measured and the liver histopathology were analyzed. Also, UPLC-Q-TOF-MS with untargeted metabolomics was performed to identify the possible metabolites and pathway of liver injury caused by PM. Compared with the control group, the serum levels of ALT, AST, ALP, TG, and TBA in middle and high dose PM groups were significantly increased. And the serum contents of T-Bil, D-Bil, TC, TP were significantly decreased. However, there was no significant difference between the low dose group of PM and the control group except serum AST, TG, T-Bil, and D-Bil. Nine biomarkers were identified based on biomarkers analysis. And the pathway analysis indicated that fat metabolism, amino acid metabolism and bile acid metabolism were involved in PM liver injury. Based on the biomarker pathway analysis, PM changed the lipid metabolism, amino acid metabolism and bile acid metabolism and excretion in a dose-dependent manner which was related to the mechanism of liver injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Xia Li
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Systematic Research, Development and Utilization of Chinese Medicine Resources, Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiao-Hong Gong
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Systematic Research, Development and Utilization of Chinese Medicine Resources, Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Mei-Chen Liu
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Systematic Research, Development and Utilization of Chinese Medicine Resources, Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Cheng Peng
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Systematic Research, Development and Utilization of Chinese Medicine Resources, Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Peng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Yi-Tao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
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17
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Raghow R. Statins redux: A re-assessment of how statins lower plasma cholesterol. World J Diabetes 2017; 8:230-234. [PMID: 28694924 PMCID: PMC5483422 DOI: 10.4239/wjd.v8.i6.230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Obesity associated dyslipidemia and its negative effects on the heart and blood vessels have emerged as a major healthcare challenge around the globe. The use of statins, potent inhibitors of hydroxyl-methyl glutaryl (HMG) Co-A reductase, a rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis, has significantly reduced the rates of cardiovascular and general mortality in patients with coronary artery disease. How statins lower plasma cholesterol levels presents a mechanistic conundrum since persistent exposure to these drugs in vitro or in vivo is known to induce overexpression of the HMG Co-A reductase gene and protein. In an attempt to solve this mechanistic puzzle, Schonewille et al, studied detailed metabolic parameters of cholesterol synthesis, inter-organ flux and excretion in mice treated with 3 common statins, rosuvastatin, atorvastatin or lovastatin, each with its unique pharmacokinetics. From the measurements of the rates of heavy water (D2O) and [13C]-acetate incorporation into lipids, the authors calculated the rates of whole body and organ-specific cholesterol synthesis in control and statin-treated mice. These analyses revealed dramatic enhancement in the rates of hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis in statin-treated mice that concomitantly elicited lower levels of cholesterol in their plasma. The authors have provided strong evidence to indicate that statin treatment in mice led to induction of compensatory metabolic pathways that apparently mitigated an excessive accumulation of cholesterol in the body. It was noted however that changes in cholesterol metabolism induced by 3 statins were not identical. While sustained delivery of all 3 statins led to enhanced rates of biliary excretion of cholesterol and its fecal elimination, only atorvastatin treated mice elicited enhanced trans-intestinal cholesterol excretion. Thus, blockade of HMGCR by statins in mice was associated with profound metabolic adaptations that reset their cholesterol homeostasis. The findings of Schonewille et al, deserve to be corroborated and extended in patients in order to more effectively utilize these important cholesterol-lowering drugs in the clinic.
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18
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Li WK, Li H, Lu YF, Li YY, Fu ZD, Liu J. Atorvastatin alters the expression of genes related to bile acid metabolism and circadian clock in livers of mice. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3348. [PMID: 28533986 PMCID: PMC5438592 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 04/23/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim Atorvastatin is a HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor used for hyperlipidemia. Atorvastatin is generally safe but may induce cholestasis. The present study aimed to examine the effects of atorvastatin on hepatic gene expression related to bile acid metabolism and homeostasis, as well as the expression of circadian clock genes in livers of mice. Methods Adult male mice were given atorvastatin (10, 30, and 100 mg/kg, po) daily for 30 days, and blood biochemistry, histopathology, and gene expression were examined. Results Repeated administration of atorvastatin did not affect animal body weight gain or liver weights. Serum enzyme activities were in the normal range. Histologically, the high dose of atorvastatin produced scattered swollen hepatocytes, foci of feathery-like degeneration, together with increased expression of Egr-1 and metallothionein-1. Atorvastatin increased the expression of Cyp7a1 in the liver, along with FXR and SHP. In contract, atorvastatin decreased the expression of bile acid transporters Ntcp, Bsep, Ostα, and Ostβ. The most dramatic change was the 30-fold induction of Cyp7a1. Because Cyp7a1 is a circadian clock-controlled gene, we further examined the effect of atorvastatin on clock gene expression. Atorvastatin increased the expression of clock core master genes Bmal1 and Npas2, decreased the expression of clock feedback genes Per2, Per3, and the clock targeted genes Dbp and Tef, whereas it had no effect on Cry1 and Nr1d1 expression. Conclusion Repeated administration of atorvastatin affects bile acid metabolism and markedly increases the expression of the bile acid synthesis rate-limiting enzyme gene Cyp7a1, together with alterations in the expression of circadian clock genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Kai Li
- Key Lab for Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical College, Zunyi, China.,Department of Pharmacology, Shanghai University of Chinese Traditional Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Huan Li
- Key Lab for Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical College, Zunyi, China
| | - Yuan-Fu Lu
- Key Lab for Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical College, Zunyi, China
| | - Ying-Ying Li
- Key Lab for Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical College, Zunyi, China
| | - Zidong Donna Fu
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Jie Liu
- Key Lab for Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical College, Zunyi, China
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19
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Lai Q, Giralt A, Le May C, Zhang L, Cariou B, Denechaud PD, Fajas L. E2F1 inhibits circulating cholesterol clearance by regulating Pcsk9 expression in the liver. JCI Insight 2017; 2:89729. [PMID: 28515357 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.89729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 04/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol accumulation in the liver is an early event in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Here, we demonstrate that E2F1 plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular cholesterol homeostasis by regulating cholesterol uptake via proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin 9 (PCSK9), an enzyme that promotes low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) degradation upon activation. E2f1-/- mice display reduced total plasma cholesterol levels and increased cholesterol content in the liver. In this study, we show that E2f1 deletion in cellular and mouse models leads to a marked decrease in Pcsk9 expression and an increase in LDLR expression. In addition to the upregulation of LDLR, we report that E2f1-/- hepatocytes exhibit increased LDL uptake. ChIP-Seq and PCSK9 promoter reporter experiments confirmed that E2F1 binds to and transactivates the PCSK9 promoter. Interestingly, E2f1-/- mice fed a high-cholesterol diet (HCD) display a fatty liver phenotype and liver fibrosis, which is reversed by reexpression of PCSK9 in the liver. Collectively, these data indicate that E2F1 regulates cholesterol uptake and that the loss of E2F1 leads to abnormal cholesterol accumulation in the liver and the development of fibrosis in response to an HCD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Albert Giralt
- Department of Physiology.,Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Cédric Le May
- l'Institut du Thorax, Inserm UMR1087 - CNRS UMR6291, UNIV Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Lianjun Zhang
- Ludwig Cancer Research and Department of Oncology, University of Lausanne, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Bertrand Cariou
- l'Institut du Thorax, Inserm UMR1087 - CNRS UMR6291, UNIV Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Pierre-Damien Denechaud
- Department of Physiology.,Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lluis Fajas
- Department of Physiology.,Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality are of increasing concern, not only to patients but also to the health care profession and service providers. The preventative benefit of treatment of dyslipidaemia is unquestioned but there is a large, so far unmet need to improve clinical outcome. There are exciting new discoveries of targets that may translate into improved clinical outcome. Areas covered: This review highlights some new pathways in cholesterol and triglyceride metabolism and examines new targets, new drugs and new molecules. The review includes the results of recent trials of relatively new drugs that have shown benefit in cardiovascular endpoint outcomes, drugs that have been licenced without endpoint trials yet available and new drugs that have not yet been licenced but have produced exciting results in animal studies and some in early phase 2 human studies. Expert opinion: The new areas that have been discovered as the cause of dyslipidaemia have opened up a host of new targets for new drugs including antisense RNA's, microRNA's and human monoclonal antibodies. The plethora of new targets and new drugs has made it an extraordinarily exciting time in the development of therapeutics to combat atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald H Tomkin
- a Diabetes Institute of Ireland , Beacon Clinic and Trinity College , Dublin 2 , Ireland
| | - Daphne Owens
- a Diabetes Institute of Ireland , Beacon Clinic and Trinity College , Dublin 2 , Ireland
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Bakiri L, Hamacher R, Graña O, Guío-Carrión A, Campos-Olivas R, Martinez L, Dienes HP, Thomsen MK, Hasenfuss SC, Wagner EF. Liver carcinogenesis by FOS-dependent inflammation and cholesterol dysregulation. J Exp Med 2017; 214:1387-1409. [PMID: 28356389 PMCID: PMC5413325 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20160935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Revised: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocellular cancers arise in a background of liver damage and inflammation. Bakiri et al. describe the function of the transcription factor c-Fos/AP-1 using mouse models and human data. c-Fos affects cholesterol and bile acid metabolism and induces DNA damage and inflammation, thus promoting liver cancer. Human hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs), which arise on a background of chronic liver damage and inflammation, express c-Fos, a component of the AP-1 transcription factor. Using mouse models, we show that hepatocyte-specific deletion of c-Fos protects against diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced HCCs, whereas liver-specific c-Fos expression leads to reversible premalignant hepatocyte transformation and enhanced DEN-carcinogenesis. c-Fos–expressing livers display necrotic foci, immune cell infiltration, and altered hepatocyte morphology. Furthermore, increased proliferation, dedifferentiation, activation of the DNA damage response, and gene signatures of aggressive HCCs are observed. Mechanistically, c-Fos decreases expression and activity of the nuclear receptor LXRα, leading to increased hepatic cholesterol and accumulation of toxic oxysterols and bile acids. The phenotypic consequences of c-Fos expression are partially ameliorated by the anti-inflammatory drug sulindac and largely prevented by statin treatment. An inverse correlation between c-FOS and the LXRα pathway was also observed in human HCC cell lines and datasets. These findings provide a novel link between chronic inflammation and metabolic pathways important in liver cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Latifa Bakiri
- Genes, Development and Disease Group, Cancer Cell Biology Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), E-28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Rainer Hamacher
- Genes, Development and Disease Group, Cancer Cell Biology Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), E-28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Osvaldo Graña
- Bioinformatics Unit, Structural Biology and Biocomputing Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), E-28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Guío-Carrión
- Genes, Development and Disease Group, Cancer Cell Biology Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), E-28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ramón Campos-Olivas
- Spectroscopy and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Unit, Structural Biology and Biocomputing Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), E-28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Lola Martinez
- Flow Cytometry Core Unit, Biotechnology Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), E-28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Hans P Dienes
- Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Martin K Thomsen
- Department of Clinical Biomedicine, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Sebastian C Hasenfuss
- Genes, Development and Disease Group, Cancer Cell Biology Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), E-28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Erwin F Wagner
- Genes, Development and Disease Group, Cancer Cell Biology Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), E-28029 Madrid, Spain
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22
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Seidah NG, Abifadel M, Prost S, Boileau C, Prat A. The Proprotein Convertases in Hypercholesterolemia and Cardiovascular Diseases: Emphasis on Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin/Kexin 9. Pharmacol Rev 2016; 69:33-52. [DOI: 10.1124/pr.116.012989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
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23
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Schonewille M, de Boer JF, Mele L, Wolters H, Bloks VW, Wolters JC, Kuivenhoven JA, Tietge UJF, Brufau G, Groen AK. Statins increase hepatic cholesterol synthesis and stimulate fecal cholesterol elimination in mice. J Lipid Res 2016; 57:1455-64. [PMID: 27313057 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m067488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Statins are competitive inhibitors of HMG-CoA reductase, the rate-limiting enzyme of cholesterol synthesis. Statins reduce plasma cholesterol levels, but whether this is actually caused by inhibition of de novo cholesterol synthesis has not been clearly established. Using three different statins, we investigated the effects on cholesterol metabolism in mice in detail. Surprisingly, direct measurement of whole body cholesterol synthesis revealed that cholesterol synthesis was robustly increased in statin-treated mice. Measurement of organ-specific cholesterol synthesis demonstrated that the liver is predominantly responsible for the increase in cholesterol synthesis. Excess synthesized cholesterol did not accumulate in the plasma, as plasma cholesterol decreased. However, statin treatment led to an increase in cholesterol removal via the feces. Interestingly, enhanced cholesterol excretion in response to rosuvastatin and lovastatin treatment was mainly mediated via biliary cholesterol secretion, whereas atorvastatin mainly stimulated cholesterol removal via the transintestinal cholesterol excretion pathway. Moreover, we show that plasma cholesterol precursor levels do not reflect cholesterol synthesis rates during statin treatment in mice. In conclusion, cholesterol synthesis is paradoxically increased upon statin treatment in mice. However, statins potently stimulate the excretion of cholesterol from the body, which sheds new light on possible mechanisms underlying the cholesterol-lowering effects of statins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marleen Schonewille
- Department of Pediatrics University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Freark de Boer
- Department of Pediatrics, Section Molecular Genetics, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Laura Mele
- Department of Pediatrics University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Henk Wolters
- Department of Pediatrics University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Vincent W Bloks
- Department of Pediatrics University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Justina C Wolters
- Department of Pediatrics, Section Molecular Genetics, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan A Kuivenhoven
- Department of Pediatrics, Section Molecular Genetics, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Uwe J F Tietge
- Department of Pediatrics University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Gemma Brufau
- Department of Pediatrics University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Albert K Groen
- Department of Pediatrics University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands Department of Laboratory Medicine, Center for Liver, Digestive and Metabolic Diseases, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands Amsterdam Diabetes Center, Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, The Netherlands
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24
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Roubtsova A, Chamberland A, Marcinkiewicz J, Essalmani R, Fazel A, Bergeron JJ, Seidah NG, Prat A. PCSK9 deficiency unmasks a sex- and tissue-specific subcellular distribution of the LDL and VLDL receptors in mice. J Lipid Res 2015; 56:2133-42. [PMID: 26323289 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m061952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin type 9 (PCSK9), the last member of the family of Proprotein Convertases related to Subtilisin and Kexin, regulates LDL-cholesterol by promoting the endosomal/lysosomal degradation of the LDL receptor (LDLR). Herein, we show that the LDLR cell surface levels dramatically increase in the liver and pancreatic islets of PCSK9 KO male but not female mice. In contrast, in KO female mice, the LDLR is more abundant at the cell surface enterocytes, as is the VLDL receptor (VLDLR) at the cell surface of adipocytes. Ovariectomy of KO female mice led to a typical KO male pattern, whereas 17β-estradiol (E2) treatment restored the female pattern without concomitant changes in LDLR adaptor protein 1 (also known as ARH), disabled-2, or inducible degrader of the LDLR expression levels. We also show that this E2-mediated regulation, which is observed only in the absence of PCSK9, is abolished upon feeding the mice a high-cholesterol diet. The latter dramatically represses PCSK9 expression and leads to high surface levels of the LDLR in the hepatocytes of all sexes and genotypes. In conclusion, the absence of PCSK9 results in a sex- and tissue-specific subcellular distribution of the LDLR and VLDLR, which is determined by E2 levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Roubtsova
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology, Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal (affiliated with the University of Montreal), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Ann Chamberland
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology, Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal (affiliated with the University of Montreal), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jadwiga Marcinkiewicz
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology, Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal (affiliated with the University of Montreal), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Rachid Essalmani
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology, Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal (affiliated with the University of Montreal), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Ali Fazel
- Department of Medicine, McGill University Hospital Research Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - John J Bergeron
- Department of Medicine, McGill University Hospital Research Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Nabil G Seidah
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology, Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal (affiliated with the University of Montreal), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Annik Prat
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology, Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal (affiliated with the University of Montreal), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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25
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Ghosh M, Gälman C, Rudling M, Angelin B. Influence of physiological changes in endogenous estrogen on circulating PCSK9 and LDL cholesterol. J Lipid Res 2014; 56:463-9. [PMID: 25535288 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m055780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Pharmacologically increased estrogen levels have been shown to lower hepatic and plasma proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) levels in animals and humans. We hypothesized that physiological changes in estrogen levels influence circulating PCSK9, thereby contributing to the known wide inter-individual variation in its plasma levels, as well as to the established increase in LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) with normal aging. Circulating PCSK9, estradiol, and other metabolic factors were determined in fasting samples from 206 female and 189 male healthy volunteers (age 20-85 years), The mean levels of PCSK9 were 10% higher in females than in males (P < 0.05). PCSK9 levels were 22% higher in postmenopausal than in premenopausal (P < 0.001) females. Within the group of premenopausal females, circulating PCSK9 correlated inversely to estrogen levels, and PCSK9 was higher (305 ng/ml) in the follicular phase than in the ovulatory (234 ng/ml) or the luteal (252 ng/ml) phases (P < 0.05). Changes in endogenous estrogen levels during the menstrual cycle likely contribute to the broad inter-individual variation in PCSK9 and LDL-C in normal females. PCSK9 levels increase in females after menopause but not in men during this phase in life. This likely contributes to why LDL-C in women increases in this period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moumita Ghosh
- Metabolism Unit, Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, C2-94, S-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden Molecular Nutrition Unit, Center for Innovative Medicine, Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, C2-94, S-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden Karolinska Institutet/AstraZeneca Integrated CardioMetabolic Center, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, C2-94, S-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Cecilia Gälman
- Metabolism Unit, Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, C2-94, S-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden Molecular Nutrition Unit, Center for Innovative Medicine, Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, C2-94, S-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mats Rudling
- Metabolism Unit, Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, C2-94, S-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden Molecular Nutrition Unit, Center for Innovative Medicine, Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, C2-94, S-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden Karolinska Institutet/AstraZeneca Integrated CardioMetabolic Center, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, C2-94, S-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Bo Angelin
- Metabolism Unit, Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, C2-94, S-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden Molecular Nutrition Unit, Center for Innovative Medicine, Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, C2-94, S-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden Karolinska Institutet/AstraZeneca Integrated CardioMetabolic Center, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, C2-94, S-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
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26
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Fu ZD, Cui JY, Klaassen CD. Atorvastatin induces bile acid-synthetic enzyme Cyp7a1 by suppressing FXR signaling in both liver and intestine in mice. J Lipid Res 2014; 55:2576-86. [PMID: 25278499 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m053124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Statins are effective cholesterol-lowering drugs to treat CVDs. Bile acids (BAs), the end products of cholesterol metabolism in the liver, are important nutrient and energy regulators. The present study aims to investigate how statins affect BA homeostasis in the enterohepatic circulation. Male C57BL/6 mice were treated with atorvastatin (100 mg/kg/day po) for 1 week, followed by BA profiling by ultra-performance LC-MS/MS. Atorvastatin decreased BA pool size, mainly due to less BA in the intestine. Surprisingly, atorvastatin did not alter total BAs in the serum or liver. Atorvastatin increased the ratio of 12α-OH/non12α-OH BAs. Atorvastatin increased the mRNAs of the BA-synthetic enzymes cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (Cyp7a1) (over 10-fold) and cytochrome P450 27a1, the BA uptake transporters Na⁺/taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide and organic anion transporting polypeptide 1b2, and the efflux transporter multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 in the liver. Noticeably, atorvastatin suppressed the expression of BA nuclear receptor farnesoid X receptor (FXR) target genes, namely small heterodimer partner (liver) and fibroblast growth factor 15 (ileum). Furthermore, atorvastatin increased the mRNAs of the organic cation uptake transporter 1 and cholesterol efflux transporters Abcg5 and Abcg8 in the liver. The increased expression of BA-synthetic enzymes and BA transporters appear to be a compensatory response to maintain BA homeostasis after atorvastatin treatment. The Cyp7a1 induction by atorvastatin appears to be due to suppressed FXR signaling in both the liver and intestine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zidong Donna Fu
- Departments of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160 Department of Pharmacology, Harbin Medical University (the State-Province Key Laboratories of Biomedicine-Pharmaceutics of China), Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China 150081
| | - Julia Yue Cui
- Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160
| | - Curtis D Klaassen
- Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160
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27
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Kühnast S, van der Hoorn JWA, Pieterman EJ, van den Hoek AM, Sasiela WJ, Gusarova V, Peyman A, Schäfer HL, Schwahn U, Jukema JW, Princen HMG. Alirocumab inhibits atherosclerosis, improves the plaque morphology, and enhances the effects of a statin. J Lipid Res 2014; 55:2103-12. [PMID: 25139399 PMCID: PMC4174003 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m051326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibition is a potential novel strategy for treatment of CVD. Alirocumab is a fully human PCSK9 monoclonal antibody in phase 3 clinical development. We evaluated the antiatherogenic potential of alirocumab in APOE*3Leiden.CETP mice. Mice received a Western-type diet and were treated with alirocumab (3 or 10 mg/kg, weekly subcutaneous dosing) alone and in combination with atorvastatin (3.6 mg/kg/d) for 18 weeks. Alirocumab alone dose-dependently decreased total cholesterol (−37%; −46%, P < 0.001) and TGs (−36%; −39%, P < 0.001) and further decreased cholesterol in combination with atorvastatin (−48%; −58%, P < 0.001). Alirocumab increased hepatic LDL receptor protein levels but did not affect hepatic cholesterol and TG content. Fecal output of bile acids and neutral sterols was not changed. Alirocumab dose-dependently decreased atherosclerotic lesion size (−71%; −88%, P < 0.001) and severity and enhanced these effects when added to atorvastatin (−89%; −98%, P < 0.001). Alirocumab reduced monocyte recruitment and improved the lesion composition by increasing the smooth muscle cell and collagen content and decreasing the macrophage and necrotic core content. Alirocumab dose-dependently decreases plasma lipids and, as a result, atherosclerosis development, and it enhances the beneficial effects of atorvastatin in APOE*3Leiden.CETP mice. In addition, alirocumab improves plaque morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Kühnast
- The Netherlands Organization of Applied Scientific Research (TNO) - Metabolic Health Research, Gaubius Laboratory, Leiden, The Netherlands Department of Cardiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - José W A van der Hoorn
- The Netherlands Organization of Applied Scientific Research (TNO) - Metabolic Health Research, Gaubius Laboratory, Leiden, The Netherlands Department of Cardiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Elsbet J Pieterman
- The Netherlands Organization of Applied Scientific Research (TNO) - Metabolic Health Research, Gaubius Laboratory, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Anita M van den Hoek
- The Netherlands Organization of Applied Scientific Research (TNO) - Metabolic Health Research, Gaubius Laboratory, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Anusch Peyman
- Sanofi-Aventis Deutschland GmbH, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | | | - Uwe Schwahn
- Sanofi-Aventis Deutschland GmbH, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - J Wouter Jukema
- Department of Cardiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Hans M G Princen
- The Netherlands Organization of Applied Scientific Research (TNO) - Metabolic Health Research, Gaubius Laboratory, Leiden, The Netherlands
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28
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Mitchell T, Chao G, Sitkoff D, Lo F, Monshizadegan H, Meyers D, Low S, Russo K, DiBella R, Denhez F, Gao M, Myers J, Duke G, Witmer M, Miao B, Ho SP, Khan J, Parker RA. Pharmacologic profile of the Adnectin BMS-962476, a small protein biologic alternative to PCSK9 antibodies for low-density lipoprotein lowering. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2014; 350:412-24. [PMID: 24917546 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.114.214221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin-9 (PCSK9) is an important pharmacological target for decreasing low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in cardiovascular disease, although seemingly inaccessible to small molecule approaches. Compared with therapeutic IgG antibodies currently in development, targeting circulating PCSK9 with smaller molecular scaffolds could offer different profiles and reduced dose burdens. This inspired genesis of PCSK9-binding Adnectins, a protein family derived from human fibronectin-10th-type III-domain and engineered for high-affinity target binding. BMS-962476, an ∼11-kDa polypeptide conjugated to polyethylene glycol to enhance pharmacokinetics, binds with subnanomolar affinity to human. The X-ray cocrystal structure of PCSK9 with a progenitor Adnectin shows ∼910 Å(2) of PCSK9 surface covered next to the LDL receptor binding site, largely by residues of a single loop of the Adnectin. In hypercholesterolemic, overexpressing human PCSK9 transgenic mice, BMS-962476 rapidly lowered cholesterol and free PCSK9 levels. In genomic transgenic mice, BMS-962476 potently reduced free human PCSK9 (ED50 ∼0.01 mg/kg) followed by ∼2-fold increases in total PCSK9 before return to baseline. Treatment of cynomolgus monkeys with BMS-962476 rapidly suppressed free PCSK9 >99% and LDL-cholesterol ∼55% with subsequent 6-fold increase in total PCSK9, suggesting reduced clearance of circulating complex. Liver sterol response genes were consequently downregulated, following which LDL and total PCSK9 returned to baseline. These studies highlight the rapid dynamics of PCSK9 control over LDL and liver cholesterol metabolism and characterize BMS-962476 as a potent and efficacious PCSK9 inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracy Mitchell
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Ginger Chao
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Doree Sitkoff
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Fred Lo
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Hossain Monshizadegan
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Daniel Meyers
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Simon Low
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Katie Russo
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Rose DiBella
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Fabienne Denhez
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Mian Gao
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Joseph Myers
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Gerald Duke
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Mark Witmer
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Bowman Miao
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Siew P Ho
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Javed Khan
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Rex A Parker
- Molecular Discovery Technologies (T.M., G.C., D.S., S.L., K.R., R.D., F.D., M.G., J.M., G.D., M.W., J.K.), Applied Genomics (S.P.H.), and Cardiovascular Discovery Biology (F.L., H.M., D.M., B.M., R.A.P.), Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey
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29
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Seidah NG, Sadr MS, Chrétien M, Mbikay M. The multifaceted proprotein convertases: their unique, redundant, complementary, and opposite functions. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:21473-81. [PMID: 23775089 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.r113.481549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The secretory proprotein convertase (PC) family comprises nine members: PC1/3, PC2, furin, PC4, PC5/6, PACE4, PC7, SKI-1/S1P, and PCSK9. The first seven PCs cleave their substrates at single or paired basic residues, and SKI-1/S1P cleaves its substrates at non-basic residues in the Golgi. PCSK9 cleaves itself once, and the secreted inactive protease escorts specific receptors for lysosomal degradation. It regulates the levels of circulating LDL cholesterol and is considered a major therapeutic target in phase III clinical trials. In vivo, PCs exhibit unique and often essential functions during development and/or in adulthood, but certain convertases also exhibit complementary, redundant, or opposite functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabil G Seidah
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology, Clinical Research Institute of Montreal (IRCM, affiliated with the University of Montreal), Montreal, Quebec H2W 1R7, Canada.
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