Amino acid sequences within the β1 domain of human apolipoprotein B can mediate rapid intracellular degradation

Apolipoprotein B100 quality control and the regulation of hepatic very low density lipoprotein secretion

Apolipoprotein B (apoB) is the main protein component of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) and is necessary for the assembly and secretion of these triglyceride (TG)-rich particles. Following release from the liver, VLDL is converted to low density lipoprotein (LDL) in the plasma and increased production of VLDL can therefore play a detrimental role in cardiovascular disease. Increasing evidence has helped to establish VLDL assembly as a target for the treatment of dyslipidemias. Multiple factors are involved in the folding of the apoB protein and the formation of a secretion-competent VLDL particle. Failed VLDL assembly can initiate quality control mechanisms in the hepatocyte that target apoB for degradation. ApoB is a substrate for endoplasmic reticulum associated degradation (ERAD) by the ubiquitin proteasome system and for autophagy. Efficient targeting and disposal of apoB is a regulated process that modulates VLDL secretion and partitioning of TG. Emerging evidence suggests that significant overlap exists between these degradative pathways. For example, the insulin-mediated targeting of apoB to autophagy and postprandial activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR) may employ the same cellular machinery and regulatory cues. Changes in the quality control mechanisms for apoB impact hepatic physiology and pathology states, including insulin resistance and fatty liver. Insulin signaling, lipid metabolism and the hepatic UPR may impact VLDL production, particularly during the postprandial state. In this review we summarize our current understanding of VLDL assembly, apoB degradation, quality control mechanisms and the role of these processes in liver physiology and in pathologic states.

ORP10, a cholesterol binding protein associated with microtubules, regulates apolipoprotein B-100 secretion

ORP10/OSBPL10 is a member of the oxysterol-binding protein family, and genetic variation in OSBPL10 is associated with dyslipidemias and peripheral artery disease. In this study we investigated the ligand binding properties of ORP10 in vitro as well as its localization and function in human HuH7 hepatocytes. The pleckstrin homology (PH) domain of ORP10 selectively interacts with phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate, while the C-terminal ligand binding domain binds cholesterol and several acidic phospholipids. Full-length ORP10 decorates microtubules (MT), while the ORP10 N-terminal fragment (aa 1-318) localizes at Golgi membranes. Removal of the C-terminal aa 712-764 of ORP10 containing a predicted coiled-coil segment abolishes the MT association, but allows partial Golgi targeting. A PH domain-GFP fusion protein is distributed mainly in the cytosol and the plasma membrane, indicating that the Golgi affinity of ORP10 involves other determinants in addition to the PH domain. HuH7 cells expressing ORP10-specific shRNA display increased accumulation of apolipoprotein B-100 (apoB-100), but not of albumin, in culture medium, and contain reduced levels of intracellular apoB-100. Pulse-chase analysis of cellular [(35)S]apoB-100 demonstrates enhanced apoB-100 secretion by cells expressing ORP10-specific shRNA. The apoB-100 secretion phenotype is replicated in HepG2 cells transduced with the ORP10 shRNA lentiviruses. As a conclusion, the present study dissects the determinants of ORP10 association with MT and the Golgi complex and provides evidence for a specific role of this protein in β-lipoprotein secretion by human hepatocytes.

Ubiquitination regulates the assembly of VLDL in HepG2 cells and is the committing step of the apoB-100 ERAD pathway

Apolipoprotein B-100 (apoB-100) is degraded by endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD) when lipid availability limits assembly of VLDLs. The ubiquitin ligase gp78 and the AAA-ATPase p97 have been implicated in the proteasomal degradation of apoB-100. To study the relationship between ERAD and VLDL assembly, we used small interfering RNA (siRNA) to reduce gp78 expression in HepG2 cells. Reduction of gp78 decreased apoB-100 ubiquitination and cytosolic apoB-ubiquitin conjugates. Radiolabeling studies revealed that gp78 knockdown increased secretion of newly synthesized apoB-100 and, unexpectedly, enhanced VLDL assembly, as the shift in apoB-100 density in gp78-reduced cells was accompanied by increased triacylglycerol (TG) secretion. To explore the mechanisms by which gp78 reduction might enhance VLDL assembly, we compared the effects of gp78 knockdown with those of U0126, a mitogen-activated protein kinase/ERK kinase1/2 inhibitor that enhances apoB-100 secretion in HepG2 cells. U0126 treatment increased secretion of both apoB100 and TG and decreased the ubiquitination and cellular accumu-lation of apoB-100. Furthermore, p97 knockdown caused apoB-100 to accumulate in the cell, but if gp78 was concomitantly reduced or assembly was enhanced by U0126 treatment, cellular apoB-100 returned toward baseline. This indicates that ubiquitination commits apoB-100 to p97-mediated retrotranslocation during ERAD. Thus, decreasing ubiquitination of apoB-100 enhances VLDL assembly, whereas improving apoB-100 lipidation decreases its ubiquitination, suggesting that ubiquitination has a regulatory role in VLDL assembly.

The evolution of plasma cholesterol: direct utility or a "spandrel" of hepatic lipid metabolism?

Fats provide a concentrated source of energy for multicellular organisms. The efficient transport of fats through aqueous biological environments raises issues concerning effective delivery to target tissues. Furthermore, the utilization of fatty acids presents a high risk of cytotoxicity. Improving the efficiency of fat transport while simultaneously minimizing the cytotoxic risk confers distinct selective advantages. In humans, most of the plasma cholesterol is associated with low-density lipoprotein (LDL), a metabolic by-product of very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), which originates in the liver. However, the functions of VLDL are not clear. This paper reviews the evidence that LDL arose as a by-product during the natural selection of VLDL. The latter, in turn, evolved as a means of improving the efficiency of diet-derived fatty acid storage and utilization, as well as neutralizing the potential cytotoxicity of fatty acids while conserving their advantages as a concentrated energy source. The evolutionary biology of lipid transport processes has provided a fascinating insight into how and why these VLDL functions emerged during animal evolution. As causes of historical origin must be separated from current utilities, our spandrel-LDL theory proposes that LDL is a spandrel of VLDL selection, which appeared non-adaptively and may later have become crucial for vertebrate fitness.

Monogenic Hypocholesterolaemic Lipid Disorders and Apolipoprotein B Metabolism

The study of apolipoprotein (apo) B metabolism is central to our understanding of human lipoprotein metabolism. Moreover, the assembly and secretion of apoB-containing lipoproteins is a complex process. Increased plasma concentrations of apoB-containing lipoproteins are an important risk factor for the development of atherosclerotic coronary heart disease. In contrast, decreased levels of, but not the absence of, these apoB-containing lipoproteins is associated with resistance to atherosclerosis and potential long life. The study of inherited monogenic dyslipidaemias has been an effective means to elucidate key metabolic steps and biologically relevant mechanisms. Naturally occurring gene mutations in affected families have been useful in identifying important domains of apoB and microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) governing the metabolism of apoB-containing lipoproteins. Truncation-causing mutations in the APOB gene cause familial hypobetalipoproteinaemia, whereas mutations in MTP result in abetalipoproteinaemia; both rare conditions are characterised by marked hypocholesterolaemia. The purpose of this review is to examine the role of apoB in lipoprotein metabolism and to explore the key biochemical, clinical, metabolic and genetic features of the monogenic hypocholesterolaemic lipid disorders affecting apoB metabolism.

Missense mutations in APOB within the betaalpha1 domain of human APOB-100 result in impaired secretion of ApoB and ApoB-containing lipoproteins in familial hypobetalipoproteinemia

Familial hypobetalipoproteinemia (FHBL) is associated with mutations in the APOB gene. We reported the first missense APOB mutation, R463W, in an FHBL kindred (Burnett, J. R., Shan, J., Miskie, B. A., Whitfield, A. J., Yuan, J., Tran, K., Mc-Knight, C. J., Hegele, R. A., and Yao, Z. (2003) J. Biol. Chem. 278, 13442-13452). Here we identified a second nonsynonymous APOB mutation, L343V, in another FHBL kindred. Heterozygotes for L343V (n = 10) had a mean plasma apoB at 0.31 g/liter as compared with 0.80 g/liter in unaffected family members (n = 22). The L343V mutation impaired secretion of apoB-100 and very low density lipoproteins. The secretion efficiency was 20% for B100wt and 10% for B100LV and B100RW. Decreased secretion of mutant apoB-100 was associated with increased endoplasmic reticulum retention and increased binding to microsomal triglyceride transfer protein and BiP. Reduced secretion efficiency was also observed with B48LV and B17LV. Biochemical and biophysical analyses of apoB domain constructs showed that L343V and R463W altered folding of the alpha-helical domain within the N terminus of apoB. Thus, proper folding of the alpha-helical domain of apoB-100 is essential for efficient secretion.

Lipid Disorders and Mutations in the APOB Gene

Background: Plasma lipoproteins are important determinants of atherosclerosis. Apolipoprotein (apo) B is a large, amphipathic glycoprotein that plays a central role in human lipoprotein metabolism. Two forms of apoB are produced from the APOB gene by a unique posttranscriptional editing process: apoB-48, which is required for chylomicron production in the small intestine, and apoB-100, required for VLDL production in the liver. In addition to being the essential structural component of VLDL, apoB-100 is the ligand for LDL-receptor-mediated endocytosis of LDL particles.

Content: The study of monogenic dyslipidemias has revealed important aspects of metabolic pathways. In this review, we discuss the regulation of apoB metabolism and examine how APOB gene defects can lead to both hypo- and hypercholesterolemia. The key clinical, metabolic, and genetic features of familial hypobetalipoproteinemia and familial ligand-defective apoB-100 are described.

Summary: Missense mutations in the LDL-receptor-binding domain of apoB cause familial ligand-defective apoB-100, characterized by hypercholesterolemia and premature coronary artery disease. Other mutations in APOB can cause familial hypobetalipoproteinemia, characterized by hypocholesterolemia and resistance to atherosclerosis. These naturally occurring mutations reveal key domains in apoB and demonstrate how monogenic dyslipidemias can provide insight into biologically important mechanisms.

Endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation: exceptions to the rule

Quality control mechanisms in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) ensure that misfolded proteins are recognized and targeted for degradation. According to the current view of ER-associated degradation (ERAD), the degradation does not occur in the ER itself but requires the retrotranslocation of the proteins to the cytosol where they are degraded by proteasomes. Although this model appears to be valid for many different proteins a number of exceptions from this rule suggest that additional proteasome-independent ERAD pathways may exist. In this review, we will summarize what is known about these alternative ERAD pathways.