Formulation and optimization of piroxicam proniosomes by 3-factor, 3-level Box-Behnken design

Anti-EGFR immunoliposomes for cabazitaxel delivery: From formulation development to in vivo evaluation in prostate cancer xenograft model

Liposomes functionalized with monoclonal antibodies offer targeted therapy for cancer, boasting advantages like sustained drug release, enhanced stability, passive accumulation in tumors, and interaction with overexpressed receptors on cancer cells. This study aimed to develop and characterize anti-EGFR immunoliposomes loaded with cabazitaxel and assess their properties against prostate cancer in vitro and in vivo. Using a Box-Behnken design, a formulation with soy phosphatidylcholine, 10% cholesterol, and a 1:20 drug-lipid ratio yielded nanometric particle size, low polydispersity and high drug encapsulation. Immunoliposomes were conjugated with cetuximab through DSPE-PEG-Maleimide lipid anchor. Characterization confirmed intact antibody structure and interaction with EGFR receptor following conjugation. Cabazitaxel was dispersed within the liposomes in the amorphous state, confirmed by solid-state analyses. In vitro release studies showed slower cabazitaxel release from immunoliposomes. Immunoliposomes had enhanced cabazitaxel cytotoxicity in EGFR-overexpressing DU145 cells without affecting non-tumor L929 cells. Cetuximab played an important role to improve cellular uptake in a time-dependent fashion in EGFR-overexpressing prostate cancer cells. In vivo, immunoliposomes led to significant tumor regression, improved survival, and reduced weight loss in xenograft mice. While cabazitaxel induced leukopenia, consistent with clinical findings, histological analysis revealed no evident toxicity. In conclusion, the immunoliposomes displayed suitable physicochemical properties for cabazitaxel delivery, exhibited cytotoxicity against EGFR-expressing prostate cancer cells, with high cell uptake, and induced significant tumor regression in vivo, with manageable systemic toxicity.

Development and optimization of vildagliptin solid lipid nanoparticles loaded ocuserts for controlled ocular delivery: A promising approach towards treating diabetic retinopathy

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is the most prevalent cause of diabetic retinopathy (DRP). DRP has been recognized for a long time as a microvascular disease. Many drugs were used to treat DRP, including vildagliptin (VLD). In addition to its hypoglycemic effect, VLD minimizes ocular inflammation and improves retinal blood flow for individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nevertheless, VLD can cause upper respiratory tract infections, diarrhea, nausea, hypoglycemia, and poor tolerability when taken orally regularly due to its high water solubility and permeability. Effective ocular administration of VLD is achieved using solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNPs), which improve corneal absorption, prolonged retention, and extended drug release. Ocuserts (OCUs) are sterile, long-acting ocular dosage forms that diminish the need for frequent dosing while improving residence time and stability. Therefore, this study intends to develop VLD solid lipid nanoparticle OCUs (VLD-SLNPs-OCUs) to circumvent the issues commonly associated with VLD. SLNPs were prepared using the double-emulsion/melt dispersion technique. The optimal formula has been implemented in OCUs. Optimization and development of VLD-SLNPs-OCUs were performed using a Box-Behnken Design (BBD). VLD-SLNPs-OCUs loading efficiency was 95.28 ± 2.87%, and differential scanning calorimetry data (DSC) showed the full transformation of VLD to an amorphous state and the excellent distribution in the prepared OCUs matrices. The in vivo release of VLD from the optimized OCUs after 24 h was 35.12 ± 2.47%, consistent with in vitro drug release data of 36.89 ± 3.11. The optimized OCUs are safe to use in the eye, as shown by the ocular irritation test. VLD-SLNPs-OCUs provide extended VLD release, an advantageous alternative to conventional oral dose forms, resulting in fewer systemic adverse effects and less variation in plasma drug levels. VLD-SLNPs-OCUs might benefit retinal microvascular blood flow beyond blood glucose control and may be considered a promising approach to treating diabetic retinopathy.

Development of Liposomes Loaded with Chloroaluminum Phthalocyanine for Application of Photodynamic Therapy in Breast Cancer

Chloraluminium phthalocyanine (ClAlPc) has potential therapeutic effect for the treatment of cancer; however, the molecule is lipophilic and may present self-aggregation which limits its clinical success. Thus, nanocarriers like liposomes can improve ClAlPc solubility, reduce off-site toxicity and increase circulation time. For this purpose, developing suitable liposomes requires the evaluation of different lipid compositions. Herein, we aimed to develop liposomes containing soy phosphatidylcholine (SPC), 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero- 3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[amino(polyethylene glycol)-2000] (DSPEPEG2000), cholesterol and oleic acid loaded with ClAlPc using the surface response methodology and the Box-Behnken design. Liposomes with particle size from 110.93 to 374.97 nm and PdI from 0.265 to 0.468 were obtained. The optimized formulation resulted in 69.09 % of ClAlPc encapsulated, with particle size and polydispersity index, respectively, at 153.20 nm and 0.309, providing stability and aggregation control. Atomic force microscopy revealed vesicles in a spherical or almost spherical shape, while the analyzes by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Powder X-ray Diffraction (PXRD), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) suggested that the drug was adequately incorporated into the lipid bilayer of liposomes, in its amorphous state or molecularly dispersed. In vitro studies conducted in breast cancer cells (4T1) showed that liposome improved phototoxicity compared to the ClAlPc solution. ClAlPc-loaded liposomes also enhanced the production of ROS 3-fold compared to the ClAlPc solution. Finally, confocal microscopy and flow cytometry demonstrated the ability of the liposomes to enter cells and deliver the fluorescent ClAlPc photosensitizer with dose and time-dependent effects. Thus, this work showed that Box-Behnken factorial design was an effective strategy for optimizing formulation development. The obtained ClAlPc liposomes can be applied for photodynamic therapy in breast cancer cells.

PEGylated Tween 80-functionalized chitosan-lipidic nano-vesicular hybrids for heightening nose-to-brain delivery and bioavailability of metoclopramide

A PEGylated Tween 80-functionalized chitosan-lipidic (PEG-T-Chito-Lip) nano-vesicular hybrid was developed for intranasal administration as an alternative delivery route to help improve the poor oral bioavailability of BCS class-III model/antiemetic (metoclopramide hydrochloride; MTC). The influence of varying levels of chitosan, cholesterol, PEG 600, and Tween 80 on the stability/release parameters of the formulated nanovesicles was optimized using Draper-Lin Design. Two optimized formulations (Opti-Max and Opti-Min) with both maximized and minimized MTC-release goals, were predicted, characterized, and proved their vesicular outline via light/electron microscopy, along with the mutual prompt/extended in-vitro release patterns. The dual-optimized MTC-loaded PEG-T-Chito-Lip nanovesicles were loaded in intranasal in-situ gel (ISG) and further underwent in-vivo pharmacokinetics/nose-to-brain delivery valuation on Sprague-Dawley rats. The absorption profiles in plasma (plasma-AUC_0-∞) of the intranasal dual-optimized MTC-loaded nano-vesicular ISG formulation in pretreated rats were 2.95-fold and 1.64-fold more than rats pretreated with orally administered MTC and intranasally administered raw MTC-loaded ISG formulation, respectively. Interestingly, the brain-AUC_0-∞ of the intranasal dual-optimized MTC-loaded ISG was 10 and 3 times more than brain-AUC_0-∞ of the MTC-oral tablet and the intranasal raw MTC-loaded ISG, respectively. It was also revealed that the intranasal dual-optimized ISG significantly had the lowest liver-AUC_0-∞ (862.19 ng.g^-1.h^-1) versus the MTC-oral tablet (5732.17 ng.g^-1.h^-1) and the intranasal raw MTC-loaded ISG (1799.69 ng.g^-1.h^-1). The brain/blood ratio profile for the intranasal dual-optimized ISG was significantly enhanced over all other MTC formulations (P < 0.05). Moreover, the 198.55% drug targeting efficiency, 75.26% nose-to-brain direct transport percentage, and 4.06 drug targeting index of the dual-optimized formulation were significantly higher than those of the raw MTC-loaded ISG formulation. The performance of the dual-optimized PEG-T-Chito-Lip nano-vesicular hybrids for intranasal administration evidenced MTC-improved bioavailability, circumvented hepatic metabolism, and enhanced brain targetability, with increased potentiality in heightening the convenience and compliance for patients.

Lipid Nano-System Based Topical Drug Delivery for Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis: An Overview

The overall purpose of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) treatment is to give symptomatic alleviation; there is no recognized cure for RA. Frequent use of potent drugs like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), lead to various adverse effects and patient compliance suffers. On the other hand, there are many drawbacks associated with traditional methods, such as high first pass, high clearance rate, and low bioavailability. Drug administration through the skin can be a promising alternative to cope with these drawbacks, increasing patient compliance and providing site-specific action. The stratum corneum, the uppermost non-viable epidermal layer, is one of the primary limiting barriers to skin penetration. Various nanocarrier technologies come into play as drug vehicles to help overcome these barriers. The nanocarrier systems are biocompatible, stable, and have a lower cytotoxic impact. The review discusses several lipid-based nanocarrier systems for anti-rheumatic medicines for topical administration it also discusses in-vivo animal models for RA and provides information on patents granted.

Development of a potassium-based soil washing solution using response surface methodology for efficient removal of cesium contamination in soil

The overuse of chelating soil washing agents for removal of heavy metal can release soil nutrients and negatively affect organisms. Therefore, developing novel washing agents that can overcome these shortcomings is necessary. In this study, we tested potassium as a main solute of novel washing agent for cesium-contaminated field soil, owing to the physicochemical similarities between potassium and cesium. Response surface methodology was combined with a four-factor, three-level Box-Behnken design to determine the superlative washing conditions of the potassium-based solution for the removal of cesium from the soil. The parameters that were considered were the following: potassium concentration, liquid-to-soil ratio, washing time, and pH. Twenty-seven sets of experiments were conducted using the Box-Behnken design, and a second-order polynomial regression equation model was obtained from the results. Analysis of variance proved the significance and goodness of fit of the derived model. Three-dimensional response surface plots displayed the results of each parameter and their reciprocal interactions. The washing conditions that achieved the highest cesium removal efficiency (81.3%) in field soil contaminated at 1.47 mg/kg were determined to be the following: a potassium concentration of 1 M, a liquid-to-soil ratio of 20, washing time of 2 h, and a pH of 2.

Modeling integrated biomarker response (IBR) index for the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis (Lamark 1819) exposed to heavy metal mixture using the CCF design

Marine pollutants such as heavy metals (HMs) are considered among the most copious oxidative stress (OS) inducers in marine organisms which leads to reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. Complementary to our previous bioassays studies, the present research focuses on Catalase (CAT), Glutathione S-transferase (GST) and Malondialdehyde (MDA) as oxidative stress biomarkers and the integrated biomarker response (IBR) indexes (IBR₁ and IBR₂) as an ecotoxicological assessment tool in Mytilus galloprovincialis using central composite face centered (CCF) design. The oxidative stress biomarkers were measured in adult mussels (45-55 mm) on 3 days-exposed under different sub-lethal concentrations of cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu). Using multiple regressions, ANOVA analysis revealed that experimental data fitted to second-order (quadratic) polynomial equations. The results showed that types, concentrations and metals combinations has a direct effect in CAT and GST activities, MDA level and IBR indexes. Additionally, metal-metal interactions were found synergistic (supra-additive), antagonistic (infra-additive) or zero interaction in the toxicological effect. As necessary, the optimization of the experimental results was done in order to determine the optimal conditions for the oxidative stress responses and IBR indexes. It was demonstrated that the CCF design combined with the multi-biomarker approach and IBR index can be used as an appropriate tool in ecotoxicological modulation and prediction of oxidative stress and antioxidant status by heavy metals in the mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis.

Formulation Development, Optimization by Box-Behnken Design, and In Vitro and Ex Vivo Characterization of Hexatriacontane-Loaded Transethosomal Gel for Antimicrobial Treatment for Skin Infections

There are many different infections and factors that can lead to skin illnesses, but bacteria and fungi are the most frequent. The goal of this study was to develop a hexatriacontane-loaded transethosome (HTC-TES) for treating skin conditions caused by microbes. The HTC-TES was developed utilizing the rotary evaporator technique, and Box-Behnken design (BBD) was utilized to improve it. The responses chosen were particle size (nm) (Y1), polydispersity index (PDI) (Y2), and entrapment efficiency (Y3), while the independent variables chosen were lipoid (mg) (A), ethanol (%) (B), and sodium cholate (mg) (C). The optimized TES formulation with code F1, which contains lipoid (mg) (A) 90, ethanol (%) (B) 25, and sodium cholate (mg) (C) 10, was chosen. Furthermore, the generated HTC-TES was used for research on confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), dermatokinetics, and in vitro HTC release. The results of the study reveal that the ideal formulation of the HTC-loaded TES had the following characteristics: 183.9 nm, 0.262 mV, -26.61 mV, and 87.79% particle size, PDI, and entrapment efficiency, respectively. An in vitro study on HTC release found that the rates of HTC release for HTC-TES and conventional HTC suspension were 74.67 ± 0.22 and 38.75 ± 0.23, respectively. The release of hexatriacontane from TES fit the Higuchi model the best, and the Korsmeyer-Peppas model indicates the release of HTC followed a non-Fickian diffusion. By having a higher negative value for cohesiveness, the produced gel formulation demonstrated its stiffness, whereas good spreadability indicated better gel application to the surface. In a dermatokinetics study, it was discovered that TES gel considerably increased HTC transport in the epidermal layers (p < 0.05) when compared to HTC conventional formulation gel (HTC-CFG). The CLSM of rat skin treated with the rhodamine B-loaded TES formulation demonstrated a deeper penetration of 30.0 µm in comparison to the hydroalcoholic rhodamine B solution (0.15 µm). The HTC-loaded transethosome was determined to be an effective inhibitor of pathogenic bacterial growth (S. aureus and E. coli) at a concentration of 10 mg/mL. It was discovered that both pathogenic strains were susceptible to free HTC. According to the findings, HTC-TES gel can be employed to enhance therapeutic outcomes through antimicrobial activity.

Production of Low Molecular Weight Chitosan Using a Combination of Weak Acid and Ultrasonication Methods

Low molecular weight chitosan (LMWC) has higher solubility and lower viscosity allowing for a wider pharmaceutical application compared to high molecular weight chitosan. LMWC chitosan can be obtained through a chitosan depolymerization process. This research aimed to produce LWMC using the combination of formic acid and ultrasonication method with the optimal condition of the depolymerization process. The chitosan depolymerization method was performed by combining formic acid and ultrasonication. The optimum conditions of the depolymerization process were obtained using the Box–Behnken design. The LMWC obtained from depolymerization was characterized to identify its yield, degree of deacetylation, the molecular weight, structure, morphology, thermal behavior, and crystallinity index. Results: The characterization results of LWMC obtained from the depolymerization process using the optimum conditions showed that the yield was 89.398%; the degree of deacetylation was 98.076%; the molecular weight was 32.814 kDa; there was no change in the chemical structure, LWMC had disorganized shape, there was no change in the thermal behavior, and LWMC had a more amorphous shape compared to native chitosan. Conclusion: The production of LWMC involving depolymerization in the presence of weak acid and ultrasonication can be developed by using the optimal condition of the depolymerization process.

Polymers in Technologies of Additive and Inkjet Printing of Dosage Formulations

Technologies for obtaining dosage formulations (DF) for personalized therapy are currently being developed in the field of inkjet (2D) and 3D printing, which allows for the creation of DF using various methods, depending on the properties of pharmaceutical substances and the desired therapeutic effect. By combining these types of printing with smart polymers and special technological approaches, so-called 4D printed dosage formulations are obtained. This article discusses the main technological aspects and used excipients of a polymeric nature for obtaining 2D, 3D, 4D printed dosage formulations. Based on the literature data, the most widely used polymers, their properties, and application features are determined, and the technological characteristics of inkjet and additive 3D printing are shown. Conclusions are drawn about the key areas of development and the difficulties that arise in the search and implementation in the production of new materials and technologies for obtaining those dosage formulations.

Dual Vinorelbine bitartrate and Resveratrol Loaded Polymeric Aqueous core Nanocapsules for Synergistic Efficacy in Breast Cancer

AIM

The current study focused on the development and evaluation of aqueous core nanocapsules (ACNs) as an effective carrier to deliver an optimal synergistic combination of a highly water soluble Vinorelbine bitartrate (VRL) and a poorly water-soluble Resveratrol (RES) for treatment of breast cancer.

METHODS

Various molar ratios of VRL to RES were screened against MCF-7 cell lines to determine the synergistic effects using Chou-Talalay method. Synergistic ratio of therapeutic agents was then incorporated into aqueous core nanocapsules utilizing a double emulsion solvent evaporation technique to yield dual drug loaded nanocapsules (dd-ACNs). The dd-ACNs were optimized using Box-Behnken design and characterized for physicochemical parameters such as particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index, total drug content and encapsulation efficiency, surface morphology, drug excipient compatibility by FTIR and DSC, release kinetics, toxicity studies and anticancer efficacy (in-vitro and in-vivo).

RESULTS

Results demonstrated that the combination exhibited maximum synergy when higher doses of VRL were combined with smaller doses of RES (1:1, 5:1, and 10:1). The dual drug loaded ACNs were found to be stable and depicted a core-shell structure, narrow size range (150.2 ± 3.2 nm) with enhanced encapsulation (80% for VRL and 99% for RES). Moreover, the dd-ACNs were 5 times more efficacious in-vitro than a combination of free drugs, while reducing systemic toxicity. Also, pre-clinical evaluation of dd-ACNs also depicted drastic reduction of tumor volume as compared tp pristine VRL and physical combination of drugs.

CONCLUSION

The developed dd-ACNs can be applied as potential carrier for delivery of combination of chemotherapeutics at a synergistic ratio at tumor site.

Development, In-Vitro Characterization and Preclinical Evaluation of Esomeprazole-Encapsulated Proniosomal Formulation for the Enhancement of Anti-Ulcer Activity

Objective: The present study aimed to develop and optimize esomeprazole loaded proniosomes (EZL-PNs) to improve bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy. Method: EZL-PNs formulation was developed by slurry method and optimized by 33 box-Bhekhen statistical design software. Span 60 (surfactant), cholesterol, EZL concentration were taken as independent variables and their effects were evaluated on vesicle size (nm), entrapment efficiency (%, EE) and drug release (%, DR). Furthermore, optimized EZL-PNs (EZL-PNs-opt) formulation was evaluated for ex vivo permeation, pharmacokinetic and ulcer protection activity. Result: The EZL-PNs-opt formulation showed 616 ± 13.21 nm of vesicle size, and 81.21 ± 2.35% of EE. EZL-PNs-opt exhibited negative zeta potential and spherical confirmed scanning electron microscopy. EZL-PNs-opt showed sustained release of EZL (95.07 ± 2.10% in 12 h) than pure EZL dispersion. The ex-vivo gut permeation result exhibited a significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced flux than pure EZL. The in vivo results revealed 4.02-fold enhancement in bioavailability and 61.65% protection in ulcer than pure EZL dispersion (43.82%). Conclusion: Our findings revealed that EZL-PNs formulation could be an alternative delivery system of EZL to enhance oral bioavailability and antiulcer activity.

Understanding the Impact of Multi-factorial Composition on Efficient Loading of the Stable Ketoprofen Nanoparticles on Orodispersible Films Using Box-Behnken Design

The purpose of the present study was to prepare Orodispersible films (ODFs) loaded with ketoprofen nanoparticles (KT-NP). The Box-Behnken design was constructed in developing and optimizing the KTF-NP-ODFs. The effect of independent variables: Soluplus® concentration (X₁, stabilizer), Tween 80 concentration (X₂, surfactant), and KTF concentration (X₃, drug) were studied on the dependent variables: particle size (PS, Y₁), zeta potential (ZP, Y₂), and the polydispersity index (PDI, Y₃) of the NPs, as well as on the tensile strength (TS, Y₄) and permeability coefficient (PC, Y₅) of the KTF-NP-ODFs. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC E15) and polyethylene glycol (PEG 400) were used as the film former polymer and plasticizer, respectively, and their concentrations were kept constant for all formulations. KTF-NPs were prepared by antisolvent precipitation technology. This was followed by the addition of HPMC E15 and PEG 400 to prepare the ODFs using the solvent-casting method. The PS, PDI, and ZP for all the formulations were found in the range of 94 nm to 350 nm, 0.09 to 0.438, and -21.83 mV to -8.03 mV, respectively. The TS and PC of the prepared KTF-NP-ODFs were found between 1.21 MPa to 3.93 MPa and 3.12 × 10^-4 cm/h to 34.23 × 10^-4 cm/h, respectively. The amorphous nature of the KTF-NP in the ODFs was confirmed by the absence of characteristic crystalline peaks and endothermic events of KTF in X-ray diffraction (XRD) and modulated differential scanning calorimetry (mDSC), respectively. The optimized formulation showed ̴ 4 times higher permeability as compared to the pure KTF. In addition, the dissolution of pure KTF and the optimized KTF-NP-ODF in pH 1.2 at the end of 60 min was found to be ̴ 30% and ̴ 95%, respectively. Conclusively, KTF-NP-ODFs can be a promising drug delivery system to counter the issues related to dysphagia and bypass the common side effects, such as the gastric irritation associated with NSAIDs like KTF.

Development of a Hydrophobicity-Controlled Delivery System Containing Levodopa Methyl Ester Hydrochloride Loaded into a Mesoporous Silica

Background: The drug release of antiparkinsonian drugs is an important issue during the formulation process because proper release kinetics can help to reduce the off periods of Parkinson’s disease. A 2-factor, 3-level (3²) full-factorial design was conducted to evaluate statistically the influence of the hydrophobicity of mesoporous silica on drug release. Methods: Hydrophobization was evaluated by different methods, such as contact angle measurement, infrared spectroscopy and charge titration. After loading the drug (levodopa methyl ester hydrochloride, melevodopa hydrochloride, LDME) into the mesopores, drug content, particle size, specific surface area and homogeneity of the products were also analyzed. The amorphous state of LDME was verified by X-ray diffractometry and differential scanning calorimetry. Results: Drug release was characterized by a model-independent method using the so-called initial release rate parameter, as detailed in the article. The adaptability of this method was verified; the model fitted closely to the actual release results according to the similarity factor, independently of the release kinetics. Conclusions: The API was successfully loaded into the silica, resulting in a reduced surface area. The release studies indicated that the release rate significantly decreased (p < 0.05) with increasing hydrophobicity. The products with controlled release can reduce the off period frequency.

Response surface modeling with Box-Behnken design for strontium removal from soil by calcium-based solution

Owing to its physicochemical similarity to strontium (Sr), calcium (Ca) was tested as a key component of a soil washing solution for Sr-contaminated soil collected near a nuclear power plant. A four-factor, three-level Box-Behnken experimental design combined with response surface modeling was employed to determine the optimal Sr washing condition for Ca-based solution. The Ca concentration (0.1-1 M), liquid-to-soil ratio (5-20), washing time (0.5-2 h), and pH (2.0-7.0) were tested as the independent variables. From the Box-Behnken design, 27 sets of experimental conditions were selected, and a second-order polynomial regression equation was derived. The significance of the independent parameters and interactions was tested by analysis of variance. Ca concentration was found to be the most influential factor. To determine whether the four variables were independent, three-dimensional (3D) response surface plots were established. The optimal washing condition was determined to be as follows: 1 M Ca, L/S ratio of 20, 1 h washing, and pH = 2. Under this condition, the highest Sr removal efficiency (68.2%) was achieved on a soil contaminated with 90.1 mg/kg of Sr. Results from five-step sequential extraction before and after washing showed that 84.0% and 82.9% of exchangeable and carbonate-bound Sr were released, respectively. In addition, more tightly bound Sr, such as Fe/Mn oxides-bound and organic matter-bound Sr, were also removed (86.2% and 64.5% removal, respectively).

Design, development and in-vitro/in-vivo evaluation of intranasally delivered Rivastigmine and N-Acetyl Cysteine loaded bifunctional niosomes for applications in combinative treatment of Alzheimer's disease

The present investigation explores the potential of novel dual drug-loaded niosomes for nasal delivery of Rivastigmine (RIV) and N-Acetyl Cysteine (NAC) to the brain. The dual niosomes showed a particle size of 162.4 nm and % entrapment efficiencies of 97.7% for RIV and 85.9% for NAC. The niosomes were statistically validated using Box-Behnken experimental design (BBD) with good significance. Ultrastructural and chemical characterization of the niosomes using various analytical techniques like Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showcased drug-excipient compatibility and robust stability of 6 months in a liquid state at 4-8 °C. The dual drug-loaded niosomes showed a sustained drug release pattern up to 2 days. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and DPPH (1, 1-diphenyl-2- picrylhydrazyl) enzyme inhibition assays showed a better combinative effect than the free drug solutions. A 2-day nasal permeation proved the effectiveness and biocompatibility of the niosomes. In-vivo pharmacokinetic and organ biodistribution studies revealed a better drug profile and greater distribution of the niosomes in the brain compared to other organs, thereby indicating a direct nose-to-brain delivery of the niosomes.

H. El-kannishy S, Gardouh AR, K. Tawfik M, Faisal S, El-Mistekawy A, Salama A, Alomar SY, H. Eltrawy A, Yagub Aloyouni S, Zaitone SA. Chemopreventive Effect of 5-Flurouracil Polymeric Hybrid PLGA-Lecithin Nanoparticles against Colon Dysplasia Model in Mice and Impact on p53 Apoptosis

The use of 5-fluorouracil (5FU) is associated with multifaceted challenges and poor pharmacokinetics. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)-lipid hybrid nanoparticles (PLNs)-based therapy has received attention as efficient carriers for a diversity of drugs. This study evaluated the in vivo chemotherapeutic and anti-proliferative efficacy of 5FU-loaded PLNs against 1,2-dimethylhydrazine (Di-MH) prompted colon dysplasia in mice compared to free 5FU. 5FU PLNs were prepared. Male Swiss albino mice were distributed to six experimental groups. Group 1: Saline group. All the other groups were injected weekly with Di-MH [20 mg/kg, s.c.]. Group 2: Di-MH induced colon dysplasia control group. Groups 3 and 4: Di-MH + free 5FU treated group [2.5 and 5 mg/kg]. Groups 5 and 6: Di-MH + 5FU-PLNs treated group [2.5 and 5 mg/kg]. Free 5FU and 5FU-PLNs doses were administered orally, twice weekly. Treatment with 5FU-PLNs induced a higher cytoprotective effect compared to free 5FU as indicated by lower mucosal histopathologic score and reduction in number of Ki-67 immunpositive proliferating nuclei. Additionally, there was significant upregulation of p53 and caspase 3 genes in colon specimens. Our results support the validity of utilizing the PLNs technique to improve the chemopreventive action of 5FU in treating colon cancer.

Recent advances of non-ionic surfactant-based nano-vesicles (niosomes and proniosomes): a brief review of these in enhancing transdermal delivery of drug

Background

Hepatic first-pass metabolism and poor therapeutic efficiency at targeted region are the endemic problems of new drug molecules. Thus, comprehensive research has been carried out on the novel vesicular drug delivery systems in nanotechnology from the last few years. These nano-carrier systems have developed to overcome the limitations that are associated with hepatic first-pass metabolism in conventional oral dosage forms and the barrier properties of the lipid bilayer in stratum corneum via transdermal drug delivery for improving the bioavailability of various drugs.

Main body

In recent years, several targeted vesicular drug delivery carriers are developing like liposomes, niosomes, proniosomes, transferosomes, ethosomes, and electrosomes. Among them, niosomes and proniosomes are to be better carriers to increase therapeutic efficiency and bioavailability by reducing the side effects and acting as a promising approach for transdermal drug delivery. Both are non-ionic surfactant-based vesicles and are amphiphilic. This article concisely reviews the possible mechanisms within niosomes and pronisomes to enhance transdermal drug delivery, types, composition, preparation techniques, characterizations, and its applications.

Conclusion

As per the researches done in the formulation of various nano-carrier systems through transdermal approach for the enhancement of bioavailability, it can be stated that the hepatic first pass metabolism can be reduced as well as therapeutic efficiency can be increased by many folds compared to their oral marketed formulations.

Pretilachlor Releasable Polyurea Microcapsules Suspension Optimization and Its Paddy Field Weeding Investigation

In this study, pretilachlor was encapsulated into polyurea microcapsules prepared by water-initiated polymerization of polyaryl polymethylene isocyanate and eventually made into pretilachlor microcapsules suspension (PMS). We used response surface methodology (RSM) combined with the Box–Behnken design (BBD) model to optimize the formulation of PMS. The encapsulation efficiency (EE) of PMS was investigated with respect to three independent variables including wall material dosage (X₁), emulsifier dosage (X₂), and polymerization stirring speed (X₃). The results showed that the regression equation model had a satisfactory accuracy in predicting the EE of PMS. To achieve an optimal condition for PMS preparation, the dose of wall material was set to 5%, the dose of emulsifier was set to 3.5% and the polymerization stirring speed was set to 200 rpm. The EE of PMS was up to 95.68% under the optimized condition, and the spherical shape with smooth surface morphology was observed. PMS was also proven to have delayed release capability and in vivo herbicidal activity against barnyard grass [Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv.] with an LC₅₀ value of 274 mg/L. Furthermore, PMS had efficient weed management compared to commercially available 30% pretilachlor emulsifier (PE), showing a promising potential application for weeding paddy fields.

Proniosomal Microcarriers: Impact of Constituents on the Physicochemical Properties of Proniosomes as a New Approach to Enhance Inhalation Efficiency of Dry Powder Inhalers

Proniosomes are free-flowing systems with coating carriers, which developed as a method for improving the drug flow and pulmonary delivery. Extensive research on proniosomes was done to enhance the dry powder inhalers (DPI)'s inhalation performance. This research aimed at studying the impact of lactose-mannitol mixture additives on the proniosome's physicochemical properties as a method for improving the inhalation efficiency of DPI. Vismodegib has been employed as a compound model. Box-Behnken design has been employed to prepare different proniosomes formulae by incorporating various (A) span 60 concentrations, (B) lactose concentrations and (C) mannitol: total carrier mixture. The measured responses were vesicle size (R₁), %release (R₂), Carr's index (R₃) and %recovery (R₄). The results displayed that R₁ and R₄ were significantly antagonistic to C and significantly synergistic to both A and B while R₂ and R₃ were significantly synergistic to C and significantly antagonistic to both A and B. The optimal formula was selected for its aerodynamic behaviour, cytotoxic activity and bioavailability assessment. The optimal formula resulted in better Vismodegib lung deposition, cytotoxic activity and relative bioavailability. This novel formula could be a promising carrier for sustained delivery of drugs via the pulmonary route.

Quality by Design for the Development and Analysis of Enhanced In-Situ Forming Vesicles for the Improvement of the Bioavailability of Fexofenadine HCl in Vitro and in Vivo

Drug absorption from the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is one of the major problems affecting the bioavailability of orally absorbed drugs. This work aims to enhance Fexofenadine HCl oral bioavailability in vivo, the drug used for allergic rhinitis. In this study, novel spray-dried lactose-based enhanced in situ forming vesicles were prepared using different absorption enhancer by the slurry method. Full factorial design was used to obtain an optimized formulation, while central composite design was used to develop economic, environment-friendly analysis method of Fexofenadine HCl in plasma of rabbits. The optimized formulation containing Capryol 90 as absorption enhancer has a mean particle size 202.6 ± 3.9 nm and zeta potential -31.6 ± 0.9 mV. It achieved high entrapment efficiency of the drug 73.7 ± 1.7% and rapid Q3h release reaches 71.5 ± 2.7%. The design-optimized HPLC assay method in rabbit plasma could separate Fexofenadine HCl from endogenous plasma compounds in less than 3.7 min. The pharmacokinetic study and the pharmacological effect of the fexofenadine-loaded optimized formulation showed a significant increase in blood concentration and significantly higher activity against compound 48/80 induced systemic anaphylaxis-like reactions in mice. Therefore, enhanced in situ forming vesicles were effective nanocarriers for the entrapment and delivery of Fexofenadine HCl.

Extraction of rapeseed cake oil using subcritical R134a/butane: Process optimization and quality evaluation

The optimal extraction conditions of rapeseed cake oil using subcritical R134a/butane were established by response surface methodology. The quality of subcritical R134a/butane extraction oil (SRBEO) was compared with supercritical CO2 extraction oil (SCO2EO) and hexane extraction oil (HXEO). The results showed the highest extraction yield obtained by subcritical R134a/butane in the condition of R134a-butane ratio of 1.5 kg/kg, at 45°C for 50 min. Compared with SCO2EO and HXEO, the extraction yield and β-carotene content of SRBEO (87.76%, 357.21 μg/100g) were the highest. The content of phospholipids and canolol in SRBEO (3.01 mg/g, 118.51 mg/100 g) was higher than SCO2EO (not detected, 95.82 mg/100 g) and less than HXEO (25.78 mg/g, 131.85 mg/100 g). The tocopherols in SRBEO were equivalent to SCO2EO but phytosterol content of SRBEO (560.19 mg/100 g) was less than SCO2EO (591.40 mg/100 g). For fatty acids, the three extraction oils had slight difference. Thus, subcritical R134a/butane extraction appeared to be feasible for rapeseed cake oil extraction.

The Why, Where, Who, How, and What of the vesicular delivery systems

Though vesicular delivery systems have been widely explored and reviewed, no comprehensive review exists that covers their development from the inception of the concept to its culmination in the form of regulated marketed formulations. With the advancement of scientific research in the field of nanomedicine, certain category of vesicular delivery systems have successfully reached the global market. Despite extensive research and highly encouraging results in a plethora of pathological conditions in the preclinical studies, translation of these nanomedicines from laboratory to market has been very limited. Aim of this review is to describe comprehensively the various colloidal delivery systems, focusing mainly on their conventional and advanced methods of preparation, different characterization techniques and main success stories of their journey from bench to bedside of the patient. The review also touches the finer nuances of the use of modern formulation approach of DoE (Design of Experiments) in their formulation and the status of regulatory guidelines for the approval of these nanomedicines.

Optimization of Aceclofenac Proniosomes by Using Different Carriers, Part 1: Development and Characterization

In the contemporary medical model world, the proniosomal system has been serving as a new drug delivery system that is considered to significantly enhance the bioavailability of drugs with low water solubility. The application of this system can improve the bioavailability of aceclofenac that is used for the relief of pain and inflammation in osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis. The present study is intended to develop an optimized proniosomal aceclofenac formula by the use of different carriers. Aceclofenac proniosomes have been prepared by slurry method, and different carriers such as maltodextrin, mannitol, and glucose were tried. Prepared proniosomes characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis revealed the compatibility of the drug chosen with the ingredient added, powder X-ray diffractometry (XRD) confirmed the amorphous phase of the prepared proniosomes, and finally, the surfactant layer was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Aceclofenac physical state transformations were confirmed with all formulas but maltodextrin proniosomes exhibited solubility more than other formulations. HPLC method has been used to analyze the niosomes derived from proniosomes in terms of their entrapment capability and drug content. The obtained results revealed that aceclofenac proniosomes can be successfully prepared by using different carriers.

Basic red 2 and methyl violet adsorption by date pits: adsorbent characterization, optimization by RSM and CCD, equilibrium and kinetic studies

The potential of raw date pits as a natural, widely available and low-cost agricultural waste has been studied in order to adsorb cationic dyes from an aqueous solution. Date pits were characterized by FTIR, SEM, BET, and XRD analysis. To optimize removal of two industrial dyes, basic red 2 (BR2) and methyl violet (MV), from aqueous solution using date pits, response surface methodology (RSM) is employed. Tests were carried out as per central composite design (CCD) with four input parameters namely contact time, temperature, initial concentration of adsorbate, and pH. Second-order polynomial model better fits experimental data for BR2 and MV and optimum values were then determined. In the optimum conditions, kinetic study was conducted and the pseudo-second-order model was found the best fitted model compared to pseudo-first-order model. Moreover, it was shown that intraparticle diffusion was not the sole controlling step and could be associated with other transfer resistance. On other hand, equilibrium isotherms were obtained for BR2 and MV and their maximum adsorption capacities were 92 and 136 mg g^-1 respectively. Two-parameter isotherm models like Langmuir, Temkin, Freundlich, Dubinin-Radushkevich, and Halsay were investigated to fit equilibrium data. Three error functions of residual root mean square error, chi-square statistic, and average relative error were used to comfort us in the selected models, which were actually Dubinin-Radushkevich and Langmuir for BR2 and Frendlich, Temkin, and Halsay for MV.

Role of Polymers in 3D Printing Technology for Drug Delivery - An Overview

Background:

3D printing (3DP) is an emerging technique for fabrication of a variety of structures and complex geometries using 3D model data. In 1986, Charles Hull introduced stereolithography technique that took advances to beget new methods of 3D printing such as powder bed fusion, fused deposition modeling (FDM), inkjet printing, and contour crafting (CC). Being advantageous in terms of less waste, freedom of design and automation, 3DP has been evolved to minimize incurred cost for bulk production of customized products at the industrial outset. Due to these reasons, 3DP technology has acquired a significant position in pharmaceutical industries. Numerous polymers have been explored for manufacturing of 3DP based drug delivery systems for patient-customized medication with miniaturized dosage forms.

Method:

Published research articles on 3D printed based drug delivery have been thoroughly studied and the polymers used in those studies are summarized in this article.

Results:

We have discussed the polymers utilized to fabricate 3DP systems including their processing considerations, and challenges in fabrication of high throughput 3DP based drug delivery systems.

Conclusion:

Despite several advantages of 3DP in drug delivery, there are still a few issues that need to be addressed such as lower mechanical properties and anisotropic behavior, which are obstacles to scale up the technology. Polymers as a building material certainly plays crucial role in the final property of the dosage form. It is an effort to bring an assemblage of critical aspects for scientists engaged in 3DP technology to create flexible, complex and personalized dosage forms.

Optimization adsorption of norfloxacin onto polydopamine microspheres from aqueous solution: Kinetic, equilibrium and adsorption mechanism studies

Polydopamine microspheres (PDMPs) synthesized by a facile solution oxidation method were adopted as a potential adsorbent for the removal of Norfloxacin (NOR) from aqueous solution. The morphologies and properties of PDMPs were characterized using TEM, SEM, FTIR and pH_PZC. Parameters effects such as contact time, initial pH, initial concentration and ionic strength on the adsorption capacity of NOR onto PDMPs were studied. To maximize NOR removal from liquid phase, Box-Behnken experimental design (BBD) combined with response surface modeling (RSM) was employed based on the 17 preliminary experiments at 308 K. Optimum contact time, initial NOR concentration and initial pH value were found to be 97 min, 303 mg·L^-1 and 6.6, respectively, the corresponding NOR removal capacity was found to be 307 mg·g^-1. Batch adsorption experiments under the optimal conditions were conducted to investigate kinetics, thermodynamics and adsorption isotherm. Kinetic analysis confirmed that the kinetic data were well described by Pseudo-second order model. The experimental equilibrium data were well fitted by Langmuir, Redlich-Peterson, Koble-Corrigan and Dubinin-Radushkevich models. Thermodynamic parameters such as Gibbs free energy, enthalpy and entropy were calculated and the results indicated that the NOR adsorption onto PDMPs was spontaneous and endothermic. The adsorption process may be attributed to the electrostatic interaction, the formation of hydrogen bonds or π-π stacking interactions among the polydopamine (PDA) and NOR molecule.

Enhancement of Dissolution and Skin Permeability of Pentazocine by Proniosomes and Niosomal Gel

Proniosomes (PN) are the dry water-soluble carrier systems that may enhance the oral bioavailability, stability, and topical permeability of therapeutic agents. The low solubility and low oral bioavailability due to extensive first pass metabolism make Pentazocine as an ideal candidate for oral and topical sustained release delivery. The present study was aimed to formulate the PNs by quick slurry method that are converted to niosomes (liquid dispersion) by hydration, and subsequently formulated to semisolid niosomal gel. The PNs were found in spherical shape in the SEM and stable in the physicochemical and thermal analysis (FTIR, TGA, and XRD). The quick slurry method produced high recovery (> 80% yield) and better flow properties (θ = 28.1-37.4°). After hydration, the niosomes exhibited desirable entrapment efficiency (44.45-76.23%), size (4.98-21.3 μm), and zeta potential (- 9.81 to - 21.53 mV). The in vitro drug release (T_100%) was extended to more than three half-lives (2-4 h) and showed good fit to Fickian diffusion indicated by Korsmeyer-Peppas model (n = 0.136-0.365 and R² = 0.9747-0.9954). The permeation of niosomal gel was significantly enhanced across rabbit skin compared to the pure drug-derived gel. Therefore, the PNs are found promising candidates for oral as dissolution enhancement and sustained release for oral and topical delivery of pentazocine for the management of cancer pain.

Niosomes: a review of their structure, properties, methods of preparation, and medical applications

Target-specific drug-delivery systems for the administration of pharmaceutical compounds enable the localization of drugs to diseased sites. Various types of drug-delivery systems utilize carriers, such as immunoglobulins, serum proteins, synthetic polymers, liposomes, and microspheres. The vesicular system of niosomes, with their bilayer structure assembled by nonionic surfactants, is able to enhance the bioavailability of a drug to a predetermined area for a period. The amphiphilic nature of niosomes promotes their efficiency in encapsulating lipophilic or hydrophilic drugs. Other additives, such as cholesterol, can be used to maintain the rigidity of the niosomes’ structure. This narrative review describes fundamental aspects of niosomes, including their structural components, methods of preparation, limitations, and current applications to various diseases.

Enhanced Ungual Permeation of Terbinafine HCl Delivered Through Liposome-Loaded Nail Lacquer Formulation Optimized by QbD Approach

The present investigation focused on developing, optimizing, and evaluating a novel liposome-loaded nail lacquer formulation for increasing the transungual permeation flux of terbinafine HCl for efficient treatment of onychomycosis. A three-factor, three-level, Box-Behnken design was employed for optimizing process and formulation parameters of liposomal formulation. Liposomes were formulated by thin film hydration technique followed by sonication. Drug to lipid ratio, sonication amplitude, and sonication time were screened as independent variables while particle size, PDI, entrapment efficiency, and zeta potential were selected as quality attributes for liposomal formulation. Multiple regression analysis was employed to construct a second-order quadratic polynomial equation and contour plots. Design space (overlay plot) was generated to optimize a liposomal system, with software-suggested levels of independent variables that could be transformed to desired responses. The optimized liposome formulation was characterized and dispersed in nail lacquer which was further evaluated for different parameters. Results depicted that the optimized terbinafine HCl-loaded liposome formulation exhibited particle size of 182 nm, PDI of 0.175, zeta potential of -26.8 mV, and entrapment efficiency of 80%. Transungual permeability flux of terbinafine HCl through liposome-dispersed nail lacquer formulation was observed to be significantly higher in comparison to nail lacquer with a permeation enhancer. The developed formulation was also observed to be as efficient as pure drug dispersion in its antifungal activity. Thus, it was concluded that the developed formulation can serve as an efficient tool for enhancing the permeability of terbinafine HCl across human nail plate thereby improving its therapeutic efficiency.

Tinidazole functionalized homogeneous electrospun chitosan/poly (ε-caprolactone) hybrid nanofiber membrane: Development, optimization and its clinical implications

We have prepared tinidazole (TNZ) functionalized biodegradable chitosan (CH)/poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL) mucoadhesive hybrid nanofiber membrane (TNZ-PCHNF) to alleviate existing shortcomings in treatment of periodontitis. Box-Behnken design was employed for evaluating influence of formulation and processing variables on quality of final formulation. Optimized nanofiber membrane was subjected to solid-state and surface characterization studies using FTIR, DSC, XRD, SEM and AFM, which revealed that TNZ was entrapped in an amorphous form inside smooth and uniform cylindrical nanofibers without any physicochemical interaction with excipients. The optimized TNZ-PCHNF membrane had a diameter of 143.55±8.5nm and entrapment efficiency of 83.25±1.8%. In vitro drug release and antibacterial study demonstrated capability of the developed nanofiber membranes for efficiently delivering TNZ in a sustained manner up to 18days, and its ability to inhibit bacterial growth, respectively. Further, reduction of contact angle (from 123.4±2.5 to 27.4±2.3) revealed that blending of CH with PCL increases hydrophilicity of the nanofiber membrane. MTT assay and CLSM study suggested that nanofiber membrane was devoid of cytotoxicity on mouse fibroblasts. Moreover, preliminary clinical trials on patients proved therapeutic efficacy of the nanofiber membrane by eliciting a significant (p<0.05) decrease in clinical markers of periodontitis.

Enhanced Solubility and Dissolution Rate of Lacidipine Nanosuspension: Formulation Via Antisolvent Sonoprecipitation Technique and Optimization Using Box-Behnken Design

Lacidipine (LCDP) is a highly lipophilic calcium channel blocker of poor aqueous solubility leading to poor oral absorption. This study aims to prepare and optimize LCDP nanosuspensions using antisolvent sonoprecipitation technique to enhance the solubility and dissolution of LCDP. A three-factor, three-level Box-Behnken design was employed to optimize the formulation variables to obtain LCDP nanosuspension of small and uniform particle size. Formulation variables were as follows: stabilizer to drug ratio (A), sodium deoxycholate percentage (B), and sonication time (C). LCDP nanosuspensions were assessed for particle size, zeta potential, and polydispersity index. The formula with the highest desirability (0.969) was chosen as the optimized formula. The values of the formulation variables (A, B, and C) in the optimized nanosuspension were 1.5, 100%, and 8 min, respectively. Optimal LCDP nanosuspension had particle size (PS) of 273.21 nm, zeta potential (ZP) of -32.68 mV and polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.098. LCDP nanosuspension was characterized using x-ray powder diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, and transmission electron microscopy. LCDP nanosuspension showed saturation solubility 70 times that of raw LCDP in addition to significantly enhanced dissolution rate due to particle size reduction and decreased crystallinity. These results suggest that the optimized LCDP nanosuspension could be promising to improve oral absorption of LCDP.

Design and Characterization of Metformin-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Colon Cancer

Colorectal cancer is a global concern, and its treatment is fraught with non-selective effects including adverse side effects requiring hospital visits and palliative care. A relatively safe drug formulated in a bioavailability enhancing and targeting delivery platform will be of significance. Metformin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) were designed, optimized, and characterized for particle size, zeta potential, drug entrapment, structure, crystallinity, thermal behavior, morphology, and drug release. Optimized SLN were 195.01 ± 6.03 nm in size, -17.08 ± 0.95 mV with regard to surface charge, fibrous in shape, largely amorphous, and release of metformin was controlled. The optimized size, charge, and shape suggest the solid lipid nanoparticles will migrate and accumulate in the colon tumor preventing its proliferation and subsequently leading to tumor shrinkage and cell death.

Oral delivery of allopurinol niosomes in treatment of gout in animal model

CONTEXT

Gout is a painful disorder which does not have an efficient delivery system for its treatment.

OBJECTIVE

Development and in vitro, in vivo evaluation of allopurinol-loaded nonionic surfactant-based niosomes was envisaged.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Niosomes were prepared with Span 20 and Tween 20 (1:1 molar ratio) using ether injection method. The formulations were screened for entrapment efficiency, particle size analysis, zeta potential, release kinetics, in vivo activity, and stability studies.

RESULT

Stable, spherical vesicles of average particle size 304 nm with zeta-potential and entrapment efficiency of 22.2 mV and 79.44 ± 0.02%, respectively, were produced. In vitro release study revealed 82.16 ± 0.04% release of allopurinol within 24 h. The niosomal formulation was further evaluated for its antigout potential in monosodium urate (MSU) crystal induced gout animal model. The formulation demonstrated significant uric acid level reduction and enhanced antigout activity when compared with the pure allopurinol.

DISCUSSION

The better antigout activity displayed by niosomal formulation could be attributed to sustained release of drug, higher drug solubility within biological fluids, better membrane interaction, smaller size, and presence of cholesterol and surfactant.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reveals that niosomes can be an efficient delivery system for the treatment of gout.