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Zhang S, Xing M, Li B. Recent advances in musculoskeletal local drug delivery. Acta Biomater 2019; 93:135-151. [PMID: 30685475 PMCID: PMC6615977 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2019.01.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Musculoskeletal disorders are a significant burden on the global economy and public health. Advanced drug delivery plays a key role in the musculoskeletal field and holds the promise of enhancing the repair of degenerated and injured musculoskeletal tissues. Ideally, drug delivery should have the ability to directly deliver therapeutic agents to the diseased/injured sites with a desirable drug level over a period of time. Here, we present a mini-review of the current state-of-the-art research associated with local drug delivery and its use for the treatment of musculoskeletal disorders. First, an overview of drug delivery strategies, with a focus on issues related to musculoskeletal pathology, potential therapeutic strategies, conventional and non-conventional drugs, and various delivery systems, is introduced. Then, we highlight recent advances in the emerging fields of musculoskeletal local drug delivery, involving therapeutic drugs (e.g., genes, small molecule therapeutics, and stem cells), novel delivery vehicles (e.g., 3D printing and tissue engineering techniques), and innovative delivery approaches (e.g., multi-drug delivery and smart stimuli-responsive delivery). The review concludes with future perspectives and associated challenges for developing local drug delivery for musculoskeletal applications. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Three important aspects are highlighted in this manuscript: 1) The advanced musculoskeletal drug delivery is introduced from the aspects ranging from musculoskeletal disorders, potential therapeutic solutions, and various drug delivery systems. 2) The recent advances in the emerging fields of musculoskeletal local drug delivery, involving therapeutic drugs (e.g., genes, small molecule therapeutics, and stem cells), novel delivery vehicles (e.g., 3D printing and tissue engineering technique), and innovative delivery approaches (e.g., multi-drug delivery and smart stimuli-responsive delivery), are highlighted. 3) The challenges and perspectives of future research directions in the development of musculoskeletal local drug delivery are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shichao Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedics, School of Medicine, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506-9196, United States
| | - Malcolm Xing
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Bingyun Li
- Department of Orthopaedics, School of Medicine, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506-9196, United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Chen Ethan Li
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Feng Chia University, 40724 Taichung, Taiwan
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Scrivano L, Parisi OI, Iacopetta D, Ruffo M, Ceramella J, Sinicropi MS, Puoci F. Molecularly imprinted hydrogels for sustained release of sunitinib in breast cancer therapy. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.4512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Luca Scrivano
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences; University of Calabria; Rende Italy
| | - Ortensia Ilaria Parisi
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences; University of Calabria; Rende Italy
- Macrofarm s.r.l., c/o Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutrition Sciences; University of Calabria; Rende Italy
| | - Domenico Iacopetta
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences; University of Calabria; Rende Italy
| | - Mariarosa Ruffo
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences; University of Calabria; Rende Italy
- Macrofarm s.r.l., c/o Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutrition Sciences; University of Calabria; Rende Italy
| | - Jessica Ceramella
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences; University of Calabria; Rende Italy
| | | | - Francesco Puoci
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences; University of Calabria; Rende Italy
- Macrofarm s.r.l., c/o Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutrition Sciences; University of Calabria; Rende Italy
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Durkut S, Elçin YM. Synthesis and characterization of thermosensitive poly(N-vinylcaprolactam)-g-collagen. ARTIFICIAL CELLS NANOMEDICINE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2017; 45:1665-1674. [DOI: 10.1080/21691401.2016.1276925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Serap Durkut
- Tissue Engineering, Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology Laboratory, Ankara University Faculty of Science, and Ankara University Stem Cell Institute, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Yaşar Murat Elçin
- Tissue Engineering, Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology Laboratory, Ankara University Faculty of Science, and Ankara University Stem Cell Institute, Ankara, Turkey
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P R S, James NR, P R AK, Raj DK. Preparation, characterization and biological evaluation of curcumin loaded alginate aldehyde-gelatin nanogels. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2016; 68:251-257. [PMID: 27524019 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2016.05.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Curcumin, a natural polyphenol exhibits chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic activities towards cancer. In order to improve the bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy, curcumin is encapsulated in alginate aldehyde-gelatin (Alg Ald-Gel) nanogels. Alginate aldehyde-gelatin nanogels are prepared by inverse miniemulsion technique. Physicochemical properties of the curcumin loaded nanogels are evaluated by, Dynamic light scattering (DLS), NMR spectroscopy and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Curcumin loaded nanogels show hydrodynamic diameter of 431±8nm and a zeta potential of -36±4mV. The prepared nanogels exhibit an encapsulation efficiency of 72±2%. In vitro drug release studies show a controlled release of curcumin from nanogels over a period of 48h. Hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility of the nanogels are evaluated. Bare nanogels are cytocompatible and curcumin loaded nanogels induce anticancer activity towards MCF-7 cells. In vitro cellular uptake of the curcumin loaded nanogels using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) confirms the uptake of nanogels in MCF-7 cells. Hence, the developed nanogel system can be a suitable candidate for curcumin delivery to cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarika P R
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Valiamala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695 547, India.
| | - Nirmala Rachel James
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Valiamala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695 547, India.
| | - Anil Kumar P R
- Tissue Culture Laboratory, Biomedical Technology Wing, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695 012, India.
| | - Deepa K Raj
- Tissue Culture Laboratory, Biomedical Technology Wing, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695 012, India.
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Spizzirri UG, Curcio M, Cirillo G, Spataro T, Vittorio O, Picci N, Hampel S, Iemma F, Nicoletta FP. Recent Advances in the Synthesis and Biomedical Applications of Nanocomposite Hydrogels. Pharmaceutics 2015; 7:413-37. [PMID: 26473915 PMCID: PMC4695827 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics7040413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Revised: 09/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydrogels sensitive to electric current are usually made of polyelectrolytes and undergo erosion, swelling, de-swelling or bending in the presence of an applied electric field. The electrical conductivity of many polymeric materials used for the fabrication of biomedical devices is not high enough to achieve an effective modulation of the functional properties, and thus, the incorporation of conducting materials (e.g., carbon nanotubes and nanographene oxide) was proposed as a valuable approach to overcome this limitation. By coupling the biological and chemical features of both natural and synthetic polymers with the favourable properties of carbon nanostructures (e.g., cellular uptake, electromagnetic and magnetic behaviour), it is possible to produce highly versatile and effective nanocomposite materials. In the present review, the recent advances in the synthesis and biomedical applications of electro-responsive nanocomposite hydrogels are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Manuela Curcio
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, I-87036 Rende, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Cirillo
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, I-87036 Rende, Italy.
| | - Tania Spataro
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, I-87036 Rende, Italy.
| | - Orazio Vittorio
- Children's Cancer Institute Australia, Lowy Cancer Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia.
- Australian Centre for Nanomedicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia.
| | - Nevio Picci
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, I-87036 Rende, Italy.
| | - Silke Hampel
- Leibniz Institute for Solid State and Materials Research, PF 270116, D-01171 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Francesca Iemma
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, I-87036 Rende, Italy.
| | - Fiore Pasquale Nicoletta
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, I-87036 Rende, Italy.
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Spizzirri UG, Cirillo G, Curcio M, Spataro T, Picci N, Iemma F. Coated biodegradable casein nanospheres: a valuable tool for oral drug delivery. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2015; 41:2006-17. [PMID: 26023992 DOI: 10.3109/03639045.2015.1040415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Biodegradable casein nanospheres for the sustained release of bioactive molecules in the gastro-intestinal tract were prepared by precipitation polymerization using sodium methacrylate (NaMA) and N,N'-methylene bis-acrylamide (MEBA) as pH-responsive monomer and cross-linker. Three materials with different casein amount were obtained and characterized by scanning electron microscopy, dimensional analysis, water uptake, cytotoxicity and enzymatic degradation experiments. Nanospheres biodegradability was tuned by coating with polyacrylic acid. Coated and uncoated materials were investigated as delivery vehicles for diclofenac sodium salt. For un-coated samples, the release raise 100% in 30 h, while for coated specimens these values were lower than 70%, due to the diffusional constraints of polymer layer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umile Gianfranco Spizzirri
- a Dipartimento di Farmacia e Scienze della Salute e della Nutrizione , Università della Calabria, Edificio Polifunzionale , Arcavacata di Rende , Italia
| | - Giuseppe Cirillo
- a Dipartimento di Farmacia e Scienze della Salute e della Nutrizione , Università della Calabria, Edificio Polifunzionale , Arcavacata di Rende , Italia
| | - Manuela Curcio
- a Dipartimento di Farmacia e Scienze della Salute e della Nutrizione , Università della Calabria, Edificio Polifunzionale , Arcavacata di Rende , Italia
| | - Tania Spataro
- a Dipartimento di Farmacia e Scienze della Salute e della Nutrizione , Università della Calabria, Edificio Polifunzionale , Arcavacata di Rende , Italia
| | - Nevio Picci
- a Dipartimento di Farmacia e Scienze della Salute e della Nutrizione , Università della Calabria, Edificio Polifunzionale , Arcavacata di Rende , Italia
| | - Francesca Iemma
- a Dipartimento di Farmacia e Scienze della Salute e della Nutrizione , Università della Calabria, Edificio Polifunzionale , Arcavacata di Rende , Italia
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Cirillo G, Spataro T, Curcio M, Spizzirri UG, Nicoletta FP, Picci N, Iemma F. Tunable thermo-responsive hydrogels: Synthesis, structural analysis and drug release studies. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2015; 48:499-510. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2014.12.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Revised: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Curcio M, Spizzirri UG, Cirillo G, Spataro T, Picci N, Iemma F. Tailoring Flavonoids’ Antioxidant Properties Through Covalent Immobilization Into Dual Stimuli Responsive Polymers. INT J POLYM MATER PO 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/00914037.2014.996708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Shu Y, Pi F, Sharma A, Rajabi M, Haque F, Shu D, Leggas M, Evers BM, Guo P. Stable RNA nanoparticles as potential new generation drugs for cancer therapy. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2014; 66:74-89. [PMID: 24270010 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2013.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2013] [Revised: 10/11/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Human genome sequencing revealed that only ~1.5% of the DNA sequence coded for proteins. More and more evidence has uncovered that a substantial part of the 98.5% so-called "junk" DNAs actually code for noncoding RNAs. Two milestones, chemical drugs and protein drugs, have already appeared in the history of drug development, and it is expected that the third milestone in drug development will be RNA drugs or drugs that target RNA. This review focuses on the development of RNA therapeutics for potential cancer treatment by applying RNA nanotechnology. A therapeutic RNA nanoparticle is unique in that its scaffold, ligand, and therapeutic component can all be composed of RNA. The special physicochemical properties lend to the delivery of siRNA, miRNA, ribozymes, or riboswitches; imaging using fluogenenic RNA; and targeting using RNA aptamers. With recent advances in solving the chemical, enzymatic, and thermodynamic stability issues, RNA nanoparticles have been found to be advantageous for in vivo applications due to their uniform nano-scale size, precise stoichiometry, polyvalent nature, low immunogenicity, low toxicity, and target specificity. In vivo animal studies have revealed that RNA nanoparticles can specifically target tumors with favorable pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters without unwanted accumulation in normal organs. This review summarizes the key studies that have led to the detailed understanding of RNA nanoparticle formation as well as chemical and thermodynamic stability issue. The methods for RNA nanoparticle construction, and the current challenges in the clinical application of RNA nanotechnology, such as endosome trapping and production costs, are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Shu
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Fengmei Pi
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Ashwani Sharma
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Mehdi Rajabi
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Farzin Haque
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Dan Shu
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Markos Leggas
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - B Mark Evers
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Peixuan Guo
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA.
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Cirillo G, Hampel S, Spizzirri UG, Parisi OI, Picci N, Iemma F. Carbon nanotubes hybrid hydrogels in drug delivery: a perspective review. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:825017. [PMID: 24587993 PMCID: PMC3918724 DOI: 10.1155/2014/825017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Revised: 10/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The use of biologics, polymers, silicon materials, carbon materials, and metals has been proposed for the preparation of innovative drug delivery devices. One of the most promising materials in this field are the carbon-nanotubes composites and hybrid materials coupling the advantages of polymers (biocompatibility and biodegradability) with those of carbon nanotubes (cellular uptake, stability, electromagnatic, and magnetic behavior). The applicability of polymer-carbon nanotubes composites in drug delivery, with particular attention to the controlled release by composites hydrogel, is being extensively investigated in the present review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Cirillo
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende, Italy
- Leibniz Institute for Solid State and Materials Research Dresden, Postfatch 270116, 01171 Dresden, Germany
| | - Silke Hampel
- Leibniz Institute for Solid State and Materials Research Dresden, Postfatch 270116, 01171 Dresden, Germany
| | - Umile Gianfranco Spizzirri
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende, Italy
| | - Ortensia Ilaria Parisi
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende, Italy
| | - Nevio Picci
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende, Italy
| | - Francesca Iemma
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende, Italy
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Inoue Y, Takahashi R, Okada H, Iwasaki Y, Murata I, Kanamoto I. Rheological characterization of an acetaminophen jelly. Indian J Pharm Sci 2013; 75:435-41. [PMID: 24302798 PMCID: PMC3831725 DOI: 10.4103/0250-474x.119825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2012] [Revised: 04/23/2013] [Accepted: 05/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to prepare an inclusion complex of acetaminophen and β-cyclodextrin (molar ratio of 1:1). A jelly with inclusion complexes formed by kneading was prepared. The formation of inclusion complexes was assessed by powder X-ray diffraction patterns and Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy. Jellies were prepared with xanthan gum, gelatin, and κ-carrageenan. The concentration of each jelling agent was 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5% w/v. Viscoelasticity and dissolution characteristics were determined and osmometry was performed. PGWater(™), a commercial jelly for fluid replacement, served as a reference for viscoelastic characteristics and dissolution. Powder X-ray diffraction measurement revealed a different diffraction pattern for the kneading than for acetaminophen and β-cyclodextrin. Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy revealed an absorption peak (at around 1655 cm(-1)) due to the carbonyl group and benzene ring (at around 1610 cm(-1)) of acetaminophen. In contrast, the kneaded mixture (1:1) had a shift in the absorption peak due to the carbonyl group (at around 1650 cm(-1)) in acetaminophen's molecular structure, and the formation of an inclusion complex was noted. The viscosity of xanthan gum-1.0, gelatin-1.5, and carrageenan-0.5 resembled the viscoelasticity of PGWater(™). The acetaminophen in gelatin-1.0 and carrageenan-0.5 had dissolution behavior similar to that of commercial acetaminophen preparations. The osmolality of jellies prepared in different concentrations ranged from about 20-50 mOsm/kg. Results suggested that carrageenan-0.5 could serve as a useful jelly vehicle for acetaminophen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Inoue
- Laboratory of Drug Safety Management, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Josai University; 1-1 Keyakidai, Sakado-Shi, Saitama, 3500295, Japan
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Shu Y, Shu D, Haque F, Guo P. Fabrication of pRNA nanoparticles to deliver therapeutic RNAs and bioactive compounds into tumor cells. Nat Protoc 2013; 8:1635-59. [PMID: 23928498 DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2013.097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
RNA nanotechnology is a term that refers to the design, fabrication and use of nanoparticles that are mainly composed of RNAs via bottom-up self-assembly. The packaging RNA (pRNA) of the bacteriophage phi29 DNA packaging motor has been developed into a nanodelivery platform. This protocol describes the synthesis, assembly and functionalization of pRNA nanoparticles on the basis of three 'toolkits' derived from pRNA structural features: interlocking loops for hand-in-hand interactions, palindrome sequences for foot-to-foot interactions and an RNA three-way junction for branch extension. siRNAs, ribozymes, aptamers, chemical ligands, fluorophores and other functionalities can also be fused to the pRNA before the assembly of the nanoparticles, so as to ensure the production of homogeneous nanoparticles and the retention of appropriate folding and function of the incorporated modules. The resulting self-assembled multivalent pRNA nanoparticles are thermodynamically and chemically stable, and they remain intact at ultralow concentrations. Gene-silencing effects are progressively enhanced with increasing numbers of siRNAs in each pRNA nanoparticle. Systemic injection of the pRNA nanoparticles into xenograft-bearing mice has revealed strong binding to tumors without accumulation in vital organs or tissues. The pRNA-based nanodelivery scaffold paves a new way for nanotechnological application of pRNA-based nanoparticles for disease detection and treatment. The time required for completing one round of this protocol is 3-4 weeks when including in vitro functional assays, or 2-3 months when including in vivo studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Shu
- Nanobiotechnology Center, Markey Cancer Center, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
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