TLR4 activation and IL-6-mediated cross talk between adipocytes and mononuclear cells synergistically stimulate MMP-1 expression

Effect of Growth Hormone Treatment on the Concentration of Selected Metabolic Markers in Girls With Turner Syndrome

Background

As Turner syndrome (TS) predisposes to obesity and metabolic disorders, and their complications, such as cardiovascular diseases, are the main causes of shortened life expectancy in patients with TS, new metabolic markers that could serve as early predictors of dysmetabolic state are sought.

Objective

Assessment of MMP-1 (matrix metalloproteinase-1), MMP-2 (matrix metalloproteinase-2), MMP-9 (matrix metallopeptidase-9), BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor), GDNF (glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor), and VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) before the onset of growth hormone (GH) therapy and then during GH treatment as well as markers assessment during GH medication in girls with TS to establish marker stability and repeatability, and the impact of GH on markers concentration.

Method

The concentrations of circulating MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-9, BDNF, GDNF, and VEGF were measured in nine girls with TS before the onset of GH therapy and then after at least 3 months of treatment period. Subsequently, markers concentration was determined in 17 girls during GH medication, with the first determination after at least a 3-month treatment period. The patients' clinical and biochemical phenotypes were determined by weight, height, BMI, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose concentration.

Results

Comparison of markers concentration revealed a significantly higher concentration of MMP-2 in patients undergoing GH treatment (132.1 ± 42.05) than before the onset of therapy (105.0 ± 45.5, p=0.045). The values of the first measurement of VEGF in girls with TS undergoing GH therapy were significantly higher than those during the second measurement (30.9 ± 33.4 vs. 12.5 ± 11.7, p=0.029). There were no statistically significant differences between the measurements of the remaining markers concentration at any stage of the analysis.

Conclusion

Increase in MMP-2 concentration is visible during GH therapy in comparison to the pre-GH period in girls with TS which demands confirmation in subsequent tests. The role of VEGF requires further studies in the context of carbohydrate-lipid disturbances in girls with TS and its association with GH treatment.

Brain-Derived Neurotropic Factor, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor and Matrix Metalloproteinases as Markers of Metabolic Status in Non-Growth Hormone-Treated Girls With Turner Syndrome

BACKGROUND

Turner syndrome (TS) presents a high risk of congenital heart defects and may predispose to both obesity and related metabolic complications. Hence the search for new markers as potential early predictors of the metabolic syndrome (MetS) and cardiovascular diseases appears warranted.

OBJECTIVE

To assess MMP-1 (matrix metalloproteinase-1), MMP-2 (matrix metalloproteinase-2), MMP-9 (matrix metallopeptidase-9), BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor), GDNF (glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor), and VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) in non-MetS TS girls not treated with growth hormone (GH) vs. healthy short stature girls, and to assess the connection with basic metabolic parameters.

METHOD

The concentrations of circulating MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-9, BDNF, GDNF and VEGF were measured in 12 patients with TS not treated with growth hormone. The control group was composed of 17 girls with non-pathologic short stature. The patients' clinical and biochemical phenotypes were determined by weight, height, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, aminotransferases, IGF1, TSH and fT4.

RESULTS

There were no differences in mean age, weight, BMI Z-Score, or hSDS between the studied group and the controls; however, they differed in baseline values of ALT (18.2 ± 4.2 vs. 14.2 ± 4.1, p= 0.02), BDNF [29951.5 (26176.9 - 41271.9) vs. 23131.7 (18392.4 - 28313.3), p=0.01] and MMP-2 [91.8 (71.7 - 111.0) vs. 143.6 (123.7 - 244.5), p< 0.001]. BDNF correlated with ALT activity (r = 0.56 p = 0.002) and BMI Z-score (r = 0.38 p = 0.042), while MMP-2 correlated with HDL concentration (r = 0.48 p = 0.029) in all the patients. The analysis of the study group alone revealed significant positive correlations between MMP-9 and TSH (r = 0.74 p = 0.036), BDNF and both ALT (r = 0.73 p = 0.038) and TSH (r = 0.85 p = 0.008), and a negative correlation between MMP-1 and fT4 (r = -0.75 p = 0.032). The control group did not present any significant correlations.

CONCLUSION

The higher concentrations of BDNF and lower of MMP-2 found in girls with TS without MetS compared to healthy girls with short stature, could have a major impact on the future "natural" development of the metabolic status. Our findings need further studies.

Greater potency of adipocytes compared with preadipocytes under lipopolysaccharide exposure in grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella

Excessive body fat is a chronic inflammatory disorder. In this process, white adipose tissue (WAT) performs immune activities because of the dysregulated expression of adipokines. Excessive fat is accumulated in farmed fish, thereby threatening fish health. Studies have shown that adipose tissue is also an active immune organ in fish, capable of participating in and influencing immune responses. Adipocytes are the main cellular component of adipose tissue; however, little is known about the relationship between adipocyte and inflammation in fish. In this study, we analyzed transcriptome changes during adipogenesis in the primary culture of grass carp adipocytes using bioinformatics. The results showed that inflammatory signaling pathway may be activated during grass carp adipocyte differentiation, such as NFκB signaling pathway, Toll-like receptor signaling pathway and Adipocytokine signaling pathway, indicating that grass carp adipocytes have immune activities. Exposure to LPS induced expression of adipokines genes in adipocytes and preadipocytes, including NF-kB, IL-6, MCP-1 and TNFα, suggesting that preadipocytes and adipocytes both have immune response and the immune activity is conserved in vertebrates white adipocytes. Further study found that these immune marker genes were higher expressed in adipocytes compared with preadipocytes in LPS-induced inflammation. In summary, adipocyte should be considered as an active immune site in fish. Adipocytes have greater potency compared with preadipocytes in LPS-induced inflammation. This study indicated that adipocytes and preadipocytes may have different contribution in inflammation.

Ferulic acid may target MyD88-mediated pro-inflammatory signaling - Implications for the health protection afforded by whole grains, anthocyanins, and coffee

Higher dietary intakes of anthocyanins have been linked epidemiologically to decreased risk for metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular events; clinical trials and rodent studies evaluating ingestion of anthocyanin-rich extracts confirm favorable effects of these agents on endothelial function and metabolic syndrome. However, these benefits of anthocyanins are lost in rats whose gut microbiome has been eliminated with antibiotic treatment - pointing to bacterial metabolites of anthocyanins as the likely protective agents. A human pharmacokinetic assessment of orally administered cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, a prominent anthocyanin, has revealed that, whereas this compound is minimally absorbed, ferulic acid (FA) is one of its primary metabolites that appears in plasma. FA is a strong antioxidant and phase 2 inducer that has exerted marked anti-inflammatory effects in a number of rodent and cell culture studies; in particular, FA is highly protective in rodent models of diet-induced weight gain and metabolic syndrome. FA, a precursor for lignan synthesis, is widely distributed in plant-based whole foods, mostly in conjugated form; whole grains are a notable source. Coffee ingestion boosts plasma FA owing to gastrointestinal metabolism of chlorogenic acid. Hence, it is reasonable to suspect that FA mediates some of the broad health benefits that have been associated epidemiologically with frequent consumption of whole grains, anthocyanins, coffee, and unrefined plant-based foods. The molecular basis of the anti-inflammatory effects of FA may have been clarified by a recent study demonstrating that FA can target the adaptor protein MyD88; this plays an essential role in pro-inflammatory signaling by most toll-like receptors and interleukin-1β. If feasible oral intakes of FA can indeed down-regulate MyD88-dependent signaling, favorable effects of FA on neurodegeneration, hypothalamic inflammation, weight gain, adipocyte and beta cell function, adiponectin secretion, vascular health, and cartilage and bone integrity can be predicted. Since FA is well tolerated, safe, and natural, it may have great potential as a protective nutraceutical, and clinical trials evaluating its effects are needed.

Selected Metabolic Markers in Girls with Turner Syndrome: A Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

Turner syndrome (TS) predisposes an individual to obesity and related metabolic disorders. As the TS population is at a higher risk of cardiovascular diseases and malformations, research into laboratory markers of metabolic complications has been ongoing. Special significance has recently been attributed to matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), their inhibitors (TIMPs), and neurotrophic factors, such as BDNF and GDNF.

OBJECTIVE

To establish whether cardiometabolic risk in patients with TS is reflected in the concentrations of metalloproteinases and neurotrophic factors.

METHOD

The concentrations of circulating MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1, BDNF, GDNF, and VEGF were measured in 17 patients with TS. The control group was composed of 11 girls with nonpathologic short stature and normal karyotype.

RESULTS

There were no differences in chronological or bone age. No significant differences were observed in mean weight, although the Z-score BMI was higher in the study group. The mean baseline values of MMP-1 and BDNF were significantly lower in the control group than in the study group (p < 0.001, p = 0.001). Regression analysis revealed a positive correlation between MMP-1 concentrations and Z-score BMI (r = 0.36, p = 0.047) and between BDNF and Z-score BMI (r = 0.48, p = 0.013).

CONCLUSION

Our pilot study showed that MMP-1 may be a potential indicator of a higher risk of cardiometabolic complications in girls with TS. The elevated concentrations of BDNF in normal-weight girls with TS need to be studied further, taking into consideration the influence of estrogen-androgen imbalance.

Effects of 1α,25 Dihydroxyvitamin D3 on Pro-inflammatory Cytokines of Palmitic Acid Treated Thp-1 Cells

The level of saturated fatty acids, such as palmitic acid (PA), correlates with chronic inflammation in obese and metabolic syndrome patients. However, low level of vitamin D₃ is observed in those conditions. The aim of this study is to investigate effects of 1α,25(OH)₂ D₃ on PA-treated THP-1 cells. Using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, we measure mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines: TNF-α, Interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and chemokine IL-8 under PA and 1α,25(OH)₂ D₃ influence. PA, at all concentrations (25-100 μM), enhanced LPS stimulatory effect on those mRNA expression compared to LPS-treated and -untreated cells. Combination with 1α,25(OH)₂ D₃ increased cytokine expression at high (10^-6 M) and high-normal (10^-8 M) concentrations compared to PA + LPS and LPS alone, both for 2 and 24 h. However, low-normal (10^-10 M) and low (10^-12 M) levels of 1α,25(OH)₂ D₃ could not enhance PA effect, but mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine was higher than LPS-treated cells. Upstream pathway of 1α,25(OH)₂ D₃ , which is cholecalciferol, also gave the similar result. Further, inhibition of calcium pathway does not play a role in this mechanism. Thus, these findings support pro-inflammatory effect of PA and vitamin D₃ on innate immune response, especially on fat-induced inflammation.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

The effect of vitamin D₃ on chronic inflammation in obesity is uncertain. This study shows an in vitro possibility that vitamin D₃ could exaggerate inflammation when combined with high SFAs. The idea of using vitamin D₃ supplement to modulate inflammation in fat-related inflammation needs further refined experiments before its clinical application.

Diffuse optical spectroscopic imaging of subcutaneous adipose tissue metabolic changes during weight loss

Background

Changes in subcutaneous adipose tissue (AT) structure and metabolism have been shown to correlate with the development of obesity and related metabolic disorders. Measurements of AT physiology could provide new insight into metabolic disease progression and response to therapy. An emerging functional imaging technology, Diffuse Optical Spectroscopic Imaging (DOSI), was used to obtain quantitative measures of near infrared (NIR) AT optical and physiological properties.

Methods

10 overweight or obese adults were assessed during three-months on calorie-restricted diets. DOSI-derived tissue concentrations of hemoglobin, water, and lipid and the wavelength-dependent scattering amplitude (A) and slope (b) obtained from 30 abdominal locations and three time points (T0, T6, T12) were calculated and analyzed using linear mixed effects models, and were also used to form 3D surface images.

Results

Subjects lost a mean of 11.7 ± 3.4% of starting weight, while significant changes in A (+0.23 ± 0.04 mm⁻¹, adj. p < 0.001), b (−0.17 ± 0.04, adj. p < 0.001), tissue water fraction (+7.2 ± 1.1%, adj. p < 0.001) and deoxyhemoglobin [HbR] (1.1 ± 0.3 µM, adj. p < 0.001) were observed using mixed effect model analysis.

Discussion

Optical scattering signals reveal alterations in tissue structure which possibly correlate with reductions in adipose cell volume, while water and hemoglobin dynamics suggest improved AT perfusion and oxygen extraction. These results suggest that DOSI measurements of NIR optical and physiological properties could be used to enhance understanding of the role of AT in metabolic disorders and provide new strategies for diagnostic monitoring of obesity and weight loss.

From neutrophils to macrophages: differences in regional adipose tissue depots

Currently, we do not fully understand the underlying mechanisms of how regional adiposity promotes metabolic dysregulation. As adipose tissue expands, there is an increase in chronic systemic low-grade inflammation due to greater infiltration of immune cells and production of cytokines. This chronic inflammation is thought to play a major role in the development of metabolic complications and disease such as insulin resistance and diabetes. We know that different adipose tissue depots contribute differently to the risk of metabolic disease. People who have an upper body fat distribution around the abdomen are at greater risk of disease than those who tend to store fat in their lower body around the hips and thighs. Thus, it is conceivable that adipose tissue depots contribute differently to the inflammatory milieu as a result of varied infiltration of immune cell types. In this review, we describe the role and function of major resident immune cells in the development of adipose tissue inflammation and discuss their regional differences in the context of metabolic disease risk. We find that although initial studies have found regional differences, a more comprehensive understanding of how immune cells interrupt adipose tissue homeostasis is needed.

Innate immunity in diabetes and diabetic nephropathy

The innate immune system includes several classes of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), including membrane-bound Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs). These receptors detect pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in the extracellular and intracellular space. Intracellular NLRs constitute inflammasomes, which activate and release caspase-1, IL-1β, and IL-18 thereby initiating an inflammatory response. Systemic and local low-grade inflammation and release of proinflammatory cytokines are implicated in the development and progression of diabetes mellitus and diabetic nephropathy. TLR2, TLR4, and the NLRP3 inflammasome can induce the production of various proinflammatory cytokines and are critically involved in inflammatory responses in pancreatic islets, and in adipose, liver and kidney tissues. This Review describes how innate immune system-driven inflammatory processes can lead to apoptosis, tissue fibrosis, and organ dysfunction resulting in insulin resistance, impaired insulin secretion, and renal failure. We propose that careful targeting of TLR2, TLR4, and NLRP3 signalling pathways could be beneficial for the treatment of diabetes mellitus and diabetic nephropathy.

Ubiquitin-specific protease 2-69 in macrophages potentially modulates metainflammation

Macrophages play a critical role in chronic inflammation and metabolic diseases. We identified a longer splice variant of ubiquitin specific protease (USP) 2-69 as a novel molecule that modulates pathways implicated in metabolic disorders. Expression levels of aP2/FABP4 and PAI-1/SERPINE1 genes were increased by 4- and 1.8-fold, respectively, after short hairpin RNA-mediated knockdown (KD) of the USP2 gene, and such expression was alleviated by overexpression of USP2-69 in human myeloid cell lines. Supernatants derived from USP2-KD cells induced IL6 (∼6-fold) and SAA3 (∼15-fold) in 3T3-L1 adipocytes to suggest the anti-inflammatory properties of USP2. In addition, we observed a 30% decrease in the number of macrophages in mesenteric adipose tissue derived from USP2-69 transgenic mice fed a high-fat diet for 14 wk compared with that in their C57BL/6 littermates (P<0.01), which was consistent with a ∼40% decrease in transcription of aP2 and PAI-1. The aP2 locus exhibited elevated chromatin accessibility (>2.1-fold), methylation of histone H3 lysine 4 (>4.5-fold), and acetylation of histone H4 (>2.5-fold) in USP2-KD cells. Transfection of isopeptidase-mutated USP2-69 did not alter chromatin conformation on the aP2 locus in USP2-KD cells. Our results suggest that USP2-69 suppresses meta-inflammatory molecules involved in the development of type-2 diabetes.