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Trothen S, Teplitsky JE, Armstong RE, Zang RX, Lurie A, Mumby MJ, Edgar CR, Grol MW, Dikeakos JD. PACS-1 Interacts with TRPC3 and ESyt1 to Mediate Protein Trafficking while Promoting SOCE and Cooperatively Regulating Hormone Secretion. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:35014-35027. [PMID: 39157130 PMCID: PMC11325417 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c04998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2024] [Revised: 07/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/24/2024] [Indexed: 08/20/2024]
Abstract
Corticotropic cells of the anterior pituitary gland release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in a regulated manner to promote the production of cortisol and androgens. The process of ACTH secretion is partly mediated by the phosphofurin acidic cluster sorting protein 1 (PACS-1); however, the underlying mechanisms behind this regulation remain unclear. Herein, we demonstrated PACS-1 interactions with the short transient receptor potential channel 3 (TRPC3) calcium transporter and the extended synaptotagmin-1 (ESyt1) endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane tethering protein. Importantly, PACS-1 promoted interactions between TRPC3 and ESyt1 and regulated their plasma membrane localization. Lastly, we demonstrated that PACS-1 is required for a proper store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) response and that ESyt1 regulates ACTH secretion through an unknown mechanism regulated by PACS-1. Overall, our study provides new insights into the physiological role PACS-1 plays in modulating intracellular calcium levels and regulating ACTH secretion in corticotropic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven
M. Trothen
- Department
of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Jack E. Teplitsky
- Department
of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Ryan E. Armstong
- Department
of Physiology and Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Rong Xuan Zang
- Department
of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Antony Lurie
- Department
of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Mitchell J. Mumby
- Department
of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Cassandra R. Edgar
- Department
of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Matthew W. Grol
- Department
of Physiology and Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Jimmy D. Dikeakos
- Department
of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
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Zheng JY, Zhu J, Wang Y, Tian ZZ. Effects of acupuncture on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: Current status and future perspectives. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE MEDICINE 2024; 22:445-458. [PMID: 38955651 DOI: 10.1016/j.joim.2024.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is a critical component of the neuroendocrine system, playing a central role in regulating the body's stress response and modulating various physiological processes. Dysregulation of HPA axis function disrupts the neuroendocrine equilibrium, resulting in impaired physiological functions. Acupuncture is recognized as a non-pharmacological type of therapy which has been confirmed to play an important role in modulating the HPA axis and thus favorably targets diseases with abnormal activation of the HPA axis. With numerous studies reporting the promising efficacy of acupuncture for neuroendocrine disorders, a comprehensive review in terms of the underlying molecular mechanism for acupuncture, especially in regulating the HPA axis, is currently in need. This review fills the need and summarizes recent breakthroughs, from the basic principles and the pathological changes of HPA axis dysfunction, to the molecular mechanisms by which acupuncture regulates the HPA axis. These mechanisms include the modulation of multiple neurotransmitters and their receptors, neuropeptides and their receptors, and microRNAs in the paraventricular nucleus, hippocampus, amygdala and pituitary gland, which alleviate the hyperfunctioning of the HPA axis. This review comprehensively summarizes the mechanism of acupuncture in regulating HPA axis dysfunction for the first time, providing new targets and prospects for further exploration of acupuncture. Please cite this article as: Zheng JY, Zhu J, Wang Y, Tian ZZ. Effects of acupuncture on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: Current status and future perspectives. J Integr Med. 2024; 22(4): 446-459.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Yuan Zheng
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Institute of Acupuncture Research, Academy of Integrative Medicine, Shanghai Key Laboratory for Acupuncture Mechanism and Acupoint Function, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Jing Zhu
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Integrative Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Institute of Acupuncture Research, Academy of Integrative Medicine, Shanghai Key Laboratory for Acupuncture Mechanism and Acupoint Function, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Zhan-Zhuang Tian
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Institute of Acupuncture Research, Academy of Integrative Medicine, Shanghai Key Laboratory for Acupuncture Mechanism and Acupoint Function, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.
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Chojnowski K, Opiełka M, Gozdalski J, Radziwon J, Dańczyszyn A, Aitken AV, Biancardi VC, Winklewski PJ. The Role of Arginine-Vasopressin in Stroke and the Potential Use of Arginine-Vasopressin Type 1 Receptor Antagonists in Stroke Therapy: A Narrative Review. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032119. [PMID: 36768443 PMCID: PMC9916514 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2022] [Revised: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Stroke is a life-threatening condition in which accurate diagnoses and timely treatment are critical for successful neurological recovery. The current acute treatment strategies, particularly non-invasive interventions, are limited, thus urging the need for novel therapeutical targets. Arginine vasopressin (AVP) receptor antagonists are emerging as potential targets to treat edema formation and subsequent elevation in intracranial pressure, both significant causes of mortality in acute stroke. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on the mechanisms leading to AVP hyperexcretion in acute stroke and the subsequent secondary neuropathological responses. Furthermore, we discuss the work supporting the predictive value of measuring copeptin, a surrogate marker of AVP in stroke patients, followed by a review of the experimental evidence suggesting AVP receptor antagonists in stroke therapy. As we highlight throughout the narrative, critical gaps in the literature exist and indicate the need for further research to understand better AVP mechanisms in stroke. Likewise, there are advantages and limitations in using copeptin as a prognostic tool, and the translation of findings from experimental animal models to clinical settings has its challenges. Still, monitoring AVP levels and using AVP receptor antagonists as an add-on therapeutic intervention are potential promises in clinical applications to alleviate stroke neurological consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karol Chojnowski
- Student Scientific Circle of the Department of Adult Neurology, Medical University of Gdansk, 17 Smoluchowskiego Street, 80-214 Gdansk, Poland
| | - Mikołaj Opiełka
- Student Scientific Circle of the Department of Adult Neurology, Medical University of Gdansk, 17 Smoluchowskiego Street, 80-214 Gdansk, Poland
| | - Jacek Gozdalski
- Department of Adult Neurology, Medical University of Gdansk, 17 Smoluchowskiego Street, 80-214 Gdansk, Poland
- Correspondence: (J.G.); (P.J.W.)
| | - Jakub Radziwon
- Student Scientific Circle of the Department of Adult Neurology, Medical University of Gdansk, 17 Smoluchowskiego Street, 80-214 Gdansk, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Dańczyszyn
- Student Scientific Circle of the Department of Adult Neurology, Medical University of Gdansk, 17 Smoluchowskiego Street, 80-214 Gdansk, Poland
| | - Andrew Vieira Aitken
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
- Center for Neurosciences Initiative, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Vinicia Campana Biancardi
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
- Center for Neurosciences Initiative, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Paweł Jan Winklewski
- Department of Human Physiology, Medical University of Gdansk, 15 Tuwima Street, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland
- 2nd Department of Radiology, Medical University of Gdansk, 17 Smoluchowskiego Street, 80-214 Gdansk, Poland
- Correspondence: (J.G.); (P.J.W.)
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Culbert BM, Regish AM, Hall DJ, McCormick SD, Bernier NJ. Neuroendocrine Regulation of Plasma Cortisol Levels During Smoltification and Seawater Acclimation of Atlantic Salmon. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:859817. [PMID: 35528002 PMCID: PMC9069684 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.859817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Diadromous fishes undergo dramatic changes in osmoregulatory capacity in preparation for migration between freshwater and seawater. One of the primary hormones involved in coordinating these changes is the glucocorticoid hormone, cortisol. In Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), cortisol levels increase during the spring smoltification period prior to seawater migration; however, the neuroendocrine factors responsible for regulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-interrenal (HPI) axis and plasma cortisol levels during smoltification remain unclear. Therefore, we evaluated seasonal changes in circulating levels of cortisol and its primary secretagogue-adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-as well as transcript abundance of the major regulators of HPI axis activity in the preoptic area, hypothalamus, and pituitary between migratory smolts and pre-migratory parr. Smolts exhibited higher plasma cortisol levels compared to parr across all timepoints but circulating ACTH levels were only elevated in May. Transcript abundance of preoptic area corticotropin-releasing factor b1 and arginine vasotocin were ~2-fold higher in smolts compared to parr in February through May. Smolts also had ~7-fold greater hypothalamic transcript abundance of urotensin 1 (uts-1a) compared to parr in May through July. When transferred to seawater during peak smolting in May smolts rapidly upregulated hypothalamic uts-1a transcript levels within 24 h, while parr only transiently upregulated uts-1a 96 h post-transfer. In situ hybridization revealed that uts-1a is highly abundant in the lateral tuberal nucleus (NLT) of the hypothalamus, consistent with a role in regulating the HPI axis. Overall, our results highlight the complex, multifactorial regulation of cortisol and provide novel insight into the neuroendocrine mechanisms controlling osmoregulation in teleosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett M. Culbert
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
- *Correspondence: Brett M. Culbert,
| | - Amy M. Regish
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, S.O. Conte Anadromous Fish Research Laboratory, Turners Falls, MA, United States
| | - Daniel J. Hall
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, S.O. Conte Anadromous Fish Research Laboratory, Turners Falls, MA, United States
| | - Stephen D. McCormick
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, S.O. Conte Anadromous Fish Research Laboratory, Turners Falls, MA, United States
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, MA, United States
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Proczka M, Przybylski J, Cudnoch-Jędrzejewska A, Szczepańska-Sadowska E, Żera T. Vasopressin and Breathing: Review of Evidence for Respiratory Effects of the Antidiuretic Hormone. Front Physiol 2021; 12:744177. [PMID: 34867449 PMCID: PMC8637824 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.744177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Vasopressin (AVP) is a key neurohormone involved in the regulation of body functions. Due to its urine-concentrating effect in the kidneys, it is often referred to as antidiuretic hormone. Besides its antidiuretic renal effects, AVP is a potent neurohormone involved in the regulation of arterial blood pressure, sympathetic activity, baroreflex sensitivity, glucose homeostasis, release of glucocorticoids and catecholamines, stress response, anxiety, memory, and behavior. Vasopressin is synthesized in the paraventricular (PVN) and supraoptic nuclei (SON) of the hypothalamus and released into the circulation from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland together with a C-terminal fragment of pro-vasopressin, known as copeptin. Additionally, vasopressinergic neurons project from the hypothalamus to the brainstem nuclei. Increased release of AVP into the circulation and elevated levels of its surrogate marker copeptin are found in pulmonary diseases, arterial hypertension, heart failure, obstructive sleep apnoea, severe infections, COVID-19 due to SARS-CoV-2 infection, and brain injuries. All these conditions are usually accompanied by respiratory disturbances. The main stimuli that trigger AVP release include hyperosmolality, hypovolemia, hypotension, hypoxia, hypoglycemia, strenuous exercise, and angiotensin II (Ang II) and the same stimuli are known to affect pulmonary ventilation. In this light, we hypothesize that increased AVP release and changes in ventilation are not coincidental, but that the neurohormone contributes to the regulation of the respiratory system by fine-tuning of breathing in order to restore homeostasis. We discuss evidence in support of this presumption. Specifically, vasopressinergic neurons innervate the brainstem nuclei involved in the control of respiration. Moreover, vasopressin V1a receptors (V1aRs) are expressed on neurons in the respiratory centers of the brainstem, in the circumventricular organs (CVOs) that lack a blood-brain barrier, and on the chemosensitive type I cells in the carotid bodies. Finally, peripheral and central administrations of AVP or antagonists of V1aRs increase/decrease phrenic nerve activity and pulmonary ventilation in a site-specific manner. Altogether, the findings discussed in this review strongly argue for the hypothesis that vasopressin affects ventilation both as a blood-borne neurohormone and as a neurotransmitter within the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Proczka
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Physiology, Doctoral School, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jacek Przybylski
- Department of Biophysics, Physiology, and Pathophysiology, Laboratory of Centre for Preclinical Research, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Cudnoch-Jędrzejewska
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Physiology, Laboratory of Centre for Preclinical Research, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewa Szczepańska-Sadowska
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Physiology, Laboratory of Centre for Preclinical Research, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Tymoteusz Żera
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Physiology, Laboratory of Centre for Preclinical Research, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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Ren K, Liu H, Guo B, Li R, Mao H, Xue Q, Yao H, Wu S, Bai Z, Wang W. Quercetin relieves D-amphetamine-induced manic-like behaviour through activating TREK-1 potassium channels in mice. Br J Pharmacol 2021; 178:3682-3695. [PMID: 33908633 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2020] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Quercetin is a well-known plant flavonoid with neuroprotective properties. Earlier work suggested it may relieve psychiatric disorders, cognition deficits and memory dysfunction through anti-oxidant and/or radical scavenging mechanisms. In addition, quercetin modulated the physiological function of some ion channels. However, the detailed ionic mechanisms of the bioeffects of quercetin remain unknown. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Effects of quercetin on neuronal activities in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and its ionic mechanisms were analysed by calcium imaging using mice bearing a green fluorescent protein, calmodulin, and M13 fusion protein and patch clamp in acute brain slices from C57BL/6 J mice and in HEK 293 cells. The possible ionic mechanism of action of quercetin on D-amphetamine-induced manic-like effects in mice was explored with c-fos staining and the open field behaviour test. KEY RESULTS Quercetin reduced calcium influx triggered by PFC pyramidal neuronal activity. This effect involved increasing the rheobase of neuronal firing through decreasing membrane resistance following quercetin treatment. Spadin, a blocker of TREK-1 potassium channels, also blocked the effect of quercetin on the membrane resistance and neuronal firing. Further, spadin blocked the neuroprotective effects of quercetin. The effects of quercetin on TREK-1 channels could be mimicked by GF109203X, a protein kinase C inhibitor. In vivo, injection of quercetin relieved the manic hyperlocomotion in mice, induced by D-amphetamine. This action was partly alleviated by spadin. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS TREK-1 channels are a novel target for quercetin, by inhibiting PKC. This action could contribute to both the neuroprotective and anti-manic-like effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keke Ren
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China.,College of Life Sciences and Research Center for Resource Peptide Drugs, Shaanxi Engineering and Technological Research Center for Conversation and Utilization of Regional Biological Resources, Yanan University, Yanan, China
| | - Haiying Liu
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Baolin Guo
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Rui Li
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Honghui Mao
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Qian Xue
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Han Yao
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Shengxi Wu
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Zhantao Bai
- College of Life Sciences and Research Center for Resource Peptide Drugs, Shaanxi Engineering and Technological Research Center for Conversation and Utilization of Regional Biological Resources, Yanan University, Yanan, China
| | - Wenting Wang
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
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7
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Wiedmann F, Rinné S, Donner B, Decher N, Katus HA, Schmidt C. Mechanosensitive TREK-1 two-pore-domain potassium (K 2P) channels in the cardiovascular system. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2020; 159:126-135. [PMID: 32553901 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2020.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
TWIK-related K+ channel (TREK-1) two-pore-domain potassium (K2P) channels mediate background potassium currents and regulate cellular excitability in many different types of cells. Their functional activity is controlled by a broad variety of different physiological stimuli, such as temperature, extracellular or intracellular pH, lipids and mechanical stress. By linking cellular excitability to mechanical stress, TREK-1 currents might be important to mediate parts of the mechanoelectrical feedback described in the heart. Furthermore, TREK-1 currents might contribute to the dysregulation of excitability in the heart in pathophysiological situations, such as those caused by abnormal stretch or ischaemia-associated cell swelling, thereby contributing to arrhythmogenesis. In this review, we focus on the functional role of TREK-1 in the heart and its putative contribution to cardiac mechanoelectrical coupling. Its cardiac expression among different species is discussed, alongside with functional evidence for TREK-1 currents in cardiomyocytes. In addition, evidence for the involvement of TREK-1 currents in different cardiac arrhythmias, such as atrial fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia, is summarized. Furthermore, the role of TREK-1 and its interaction partners in the regulation of the cardiac heart rate is reviewed. Finally, we focus on the significance of TREK-1 in the development of cardiac hypertrophy, cardiac fibrosis and heart failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Wiedmann
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Heidelberg/Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; HCR, Heidelberg Center for Heart Rhythm Disorders, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Susanne Rinné
- Institute for Physiology and Pathophysiology, Vegetative Physiology and Marburg Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior - Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Birgit Donner
- Pediatric Cardiology, University Children's Hospital Basel (UKBB), University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Niels Decher
- Institute for Physiology and Pathophysiology, Vegetative Physiology and Marburg Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior - Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Hugo A Katus
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Heidelberg/Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; HCR, Heidelberg Center for Heart Rhythm Disorders, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Constanze Schmidt
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Heidelberg/Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; HCR, Heidelberg Center for Heart Rhythm Disorders, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
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8
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Swaab DF, Bao AM. Sex differences in stress-related disorders: Major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2020; 175:335-358. [PMID: 33008536 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-64123-6.00023-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Stress-related disorders, such as mood disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), are more common in women than in men. This sex difference is at least partly due to the organizing effect of sex steroids during intrauterine development, while activating or inhibiting effects of circulating sex hormones in the postnatal period and adulthood also play a role. Such effects result in structural and functional changes in neuronal networks, neurotransmitters, and neuropeptides, which make the arousal- and stress-related brain systems more vulnerable to environmental stressful events in women. Certain brainstem nuclei, the amygdala, habenula, prefrontal cortex, and hypothalamus are important hubs in the stress-related neuronal network. Various hypothalamic nuclei play a central role in this sexually dimorphic network. This concerns not only the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA-axis), which integrates the neuro-endocrine-immune responses to stress, but also other hypothalamic nuclei and systems that play a key role in the symptoms of mood disorders, such as disordered day-night rhythm, lack of reward feelings, disturbed eating and sex, and disturbed cognitive functions. The present chapter focuses on the structural and functional sex differences that are present in the stress-related brain systems in mood disorders and PTSD, placing the HPA-axis in the center. The individual differences in the vulnerability of the discussed systems, caused by genetic and epigenetic developmental factors warrant further research to develop tailor-made therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dick F Swaab
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, An Institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neurobiology and Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China; NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontier Science Center for Brain Research and Brain-Machine Integration, School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Ai-Min Bao
- Department of Neurobiology and Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China; NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontier Science Center for Brain Research and Brain-Machine Integration, School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China; Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder Management, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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9
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Antoni FA. Magnocellular Vasopressin and the Mechanism of "Glucocorticoid Escape". Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2019; 10:422. [PMID: 31297096 PMCID: PMC6607413 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
It is now widely accepted that magnocellular vasopressinergic neurons in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei participate in the control of adrenocorticotropin secretion by the anterior pituitary gland. However, it remains to be explored in further detail, when and how these multifunctional neurons are involved in the control of anterior pituitary function. This paper highlights the role of magnocellular vasopressin in the hypothalamic pituitary adrenocortical axis with special reference to escape from glucocorticoid feedback inhibition. The signaling mechanisms underlying glucocorticoid escape by pituitary corticotrope cells, as well as the wider physiologic and pathologic contexts in which escape is known to occur-namely strenuous exercise, and autoimmune inflammation will be considered. It is proposed that by inducing escape from glucocorticoid feedback inhibition at the pituitary level, magnocellular vasopressin is critically important for the anti-inflammatory, and immunosuppressant actions of endogenous corticosteroids.
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10
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Srisomboon Y, Zaidman NA, Maniak PJ, Deachapunya C, O'Grady SM. P2Y receptor regulation of K2P channels that facilitate K + secretion by human mammary epithelial cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2018; 314:C627-C639. [PMID: 29365273 PMCID: PMC6008065 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00342.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2016] [Revised: 01/17/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to determine the molecular identity of ion channels involved in K+ secretion by the mammary epithelium and to examine their regulation by purinoceptor agonists. Apical membrane voltage-clamp experiments were performed on human mammary epithelial cells where the basolateral membrane was exposed to the pore-forming antibiotic amphotericin B dissolved in a solution with intracellular-like ionic composition. Addition of the Na+ channel inhibitor benzamil reduced the basal current, consistent with inhibition of Na+ uptake across the apical membrane, whereas the KCa3.1 channel blocker TRAM-34 produced an increase in current resulting from inhibition of basal K+ efflux. Treatment with two-pore potassium (K2P) channel blockers quinidine, bupivacaine and a selective TASK1/TASK3 inhibitor (PK-THPP) all produced concentration-dependent inhibition of apical K+ efflux. qRT-PCR experiments detected mRNA expression for nine K2P channel subtypes. Western blot analysis of biotinylated apical membranes and confocal immunocytochemistry revealed that at least five K2P subtypes (TWIK1, TREK1, TREK2, TASK1, and TASK3) are expressed in the apical membrane. Apical UTP also increased the current, but pretreatment with the PKC inhibitor GF109203X blocked the response. Similarly, direct activation of PKC with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate produced a similar increase in current as observed with UTP. These results support the conclusion that the basal level of K+ secretion involves constitutive activity of apical KCa3.1 channels and multiple K2P channel subtypes. Apical UTP evoked a transient increase in KCa3.1 channel activity, but over time caused persistent inhibition of K2P channel function leading to an overall decrease in K+ secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nathan A Zaidman
- Departments of Animal Science, Integrative Biology, and Physiology, University of Minnesota , St. Paul, Minnesota
| | - Peter J Maniak
- Departments of Animal Science, Integrative Biology, and Physiology, University of Minnesota , St. Paul, Minnesota
| | | | - Scott M O'Grady
- Departments of Animal Science, Integrative Biology, and Physiology, University of Minnesota , St. Paul, Minnesota
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11
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Fletcher PA, Sherman A, Stojilkovic SS. Common and diverse elements of ion channels and receptors underlying electrical activity in endocrine pituitary cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2018; 463:23-36. [PMID: 28652171 PMCID: PMC5742314 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Revised: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The pituitary gland contains six types of endocrine cells defined by hormones they secrete: corticotrophs, melanotrophs, gonadotrophs, thyrotrophs, somatotrophs, and lactotrophs. All these cell types are electrically excitable, and voltage-gated calcium influx is the major trigger for their hormone secretion. Along with hormone intracellular content, G-protein-coupled receptor and ion channel expression can also be considered as defining cell type identity. While many aspects of the developmental and activity dependent regulation of hormone and G-protein-coupled receptor expression have been elucidated, much less is known about the regulation of the ion channels needed for excitation-secretion coupling in these cells. We compare the spontaneous and receptor-controlled patterns of electrical signaling among endocrine pituitary cell types, including insights gained from mathematical modeling. We argue that a common set of ionic currents unites these cells, while differential expression of another subset of ionic currents could underlie cell type-specific patterns. We demonstrate these ideas using a generic mathematical model, showing that it reproduces many observed features of pituitary electrical signaling. Mapping these observations to the developmental lineage suggests possible modes of regulation that may give rise to mature pituitary cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick A Fletcher
- Laboratory of Biological Modeling, National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Arthur Sherman
- Laboratory of Biological Modeling, National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Stanko S Stojilkovic
- Section on Cellular Signaling, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
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12
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Romanò N, McClafferty H, Walker JJ, Le Tissier P, Shipston MJ. Heterogeneity of Calcium Responses to Secretagogues in Corticotrophs From Male Rats. Endocrinology 2017; 158:1849-1858. [PMID: 28323954 PMCID: PMC5460926 DOI: 10.1210/en.2017-00107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Heterogeneity in homotypic cellular responses is an important feature of many biological systems, and it has been shown to be prominent in most anterior pituitary hormonal cell types. In this study, we analyze heterogeneity in the responses to hypothalamic secretagogues in the corticotroph cell population of adult male rats. Using the genetically encoded calcium indicator GCaMP6s, we determined the intracellular calcium responses of these cells to corticotropin-releasing hormone and arginine-vasopressin. Our experiments revealed marked population heterogeneity in the response to these peptides, in terms of amplitude and dynamics of the responses, as well as the sensitivity to different concentrations and duration of stimuli. However, repeated stimuli to the same cell produced remarkably consistent responses, indicating that these are deterministic on a cell-by-cell level. We also describe similar heterogeneity in the sensitivity of cells to inhibition by corticosterone. In summary, our results highlight a large degree of heterogeneity in the cellular mechanisms that govern corticotroph responses to their physiological stimuli; this could provide a mechanism to extend the dynamic range of the responses at the population level to allow adaptation to different physiological challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Romanò
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, United Kingdom
| | - Heather McClafferty
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, United Kingdom
| | - Jamie J. Walker
- 2Centre for Biomedical Modelling and Analysis, University of Exeter, Exeter EX2 5DW, United Kingdom
- Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council Centre for Predictive Modelling in Healthcare, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QJ, United Kingdom
- College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QF, United Kingdom
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, University of Bristol, Bristol BS1 3NY, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Le Tissier
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, United Kingdom
| | - Michael J. Shipston
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, United Kingdom
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13
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Fletcher PA, Zemkova H, Stojilkovic SS, Sherman A. Modeling the diversity of spontaneous and agonist-induced electrical activity in anterior pituitary corticotrophs. J Neurophysiol 2017; 117:2298-2311. [PMID: 28228586 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00948.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2016] [Revised: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Pituitary corticotrophs fire action potentials spontaneously and in response to stimulation with corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and arginine vasopressin (AVP), and such electrical activity is critical for calcium signaling and calcium-dependent adrenocorticotropic hormone secretion. These cells typically fire tall, sharp action potentials when spontaneously active, but a variety of other spontaneous patterns have also been reported, including various modes of bursting. There is variability in reports of the fraction of corticotrophs that are electrically active, as well as their patterns of activity, and the sources of this variation are not well understood. The ionic mechanisms responsible for CRH- and AVP-triggered electrical activity in corticotrophs are also poorly characterized. We use electrophysiological measurements and mathematical modeling to investigate possible sources of variability in patterns of spontaneous and agonist-induced corticotroph electrical activity. In the model, variation in as few as two parameters can give rise to many of the types of patterns observed in electrophysiological recordings of corticotrophs. We compare the known mechanisms for CRH, AVP, and glucocorticoid actions and find that different ionic mechanisms can contribute in different but complementary ways to generate the complex time courses of CRH and AVP responses. In summary, our modeling suggests that corticotrophs have several mechanisms at their disposal to achieve their primary function of pacemaking depolarization and increased electrical activity in response to CRH and AVP.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We and others recently demonstrated that the electrical activity and calcium dynamics of corticotrophs are strikingly diverse, both spontaneously and in response to the agonists CRH and AVP. Here we demonstrate this diversity with electrophysiological measurements and use mathematical modeling to investigate its possible sources. We compare the known mechanisms of agonist-induced activity in the model, showing how the context of ionic conductances dictates the effects of agonists even when their target is fixed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick A Fletcher
- Laboratory of Biological Modeling, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland;
| | - Hana Zemkova
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic; and.,Section on Cellular Signaling, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Stanko S Stojilkovic
- Section on Cellular Signaling, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Arthur Sherman
- Laboratory of Biological Modeling, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
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14
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Duncan PJ, Tabak J, Ruth P, Bertram R, Shipston MJ. Glucocorticoids Inhibit CRH/AVP-Evoked Bursting Activity of Male Murine Anterior Pituitary Corticotrophs. Endocrinology 2016; 157:3108-21. [PMID: 27254001 PMCID: PMC4967125 DOI: 10.1210/en.2016-1115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Corticotroph cells from the anterior pituitary are an integral component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which governs the neuroendocrine response to stress. Corticotrophs are electrically excitable and fire spontaneous single-spike action potentials and also display secretagogue-induced bursting behavior. The HPA axis function is dependent on effective negative feedback in which elevated plasma glucocorticoids result in inhibition at the level of both the pituitary and the hypothalamus. In this study, we have used an electrophysiological approach coupled with mathematical modeling to investigate the regulation of spontaneous and CRH/arginine vasopressin-induced activity of corticotrophs by glucocorticoids. We reveal that pretreatment of corticotrophs with 100 nM corticosterone (CORT; 90 and 150 min) reduces spontaneous activity and prevents a transition from spiking to bursting after CRH/arginine vasopressin stimulation. In addition, previous studies have identified a role for large-conductance calcium- and voltage-activated potassium (BK) channels in the generation of secretagogue-induced bursting in corticotrophs. Using the dynamic clamp technique, we demonstrated that CRH-induced bursting can be switched to spiking by subtracting a fast BK current, whereas the addition of a fast BK current can induce bursting in CORT-treated cells. In addition, recordings from BK knockout mice (BK(-/-)) revealed that CORT can also inhibit excitability through BK-independent mechanisms to control spike frequency. Thus, we have established that glucocorticoids can modulate multiple properties of corticotroph electrical excitability through both BK-dependent and BK-independent mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Duncan
- Centre for Integrative Physiology (P.J.D., M.J.S.), College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, United Kingdom; Biomedical Neuroscience Research Group (J.T.), University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter EX4 4PL, United Kingdom; Division of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Clinical Pharmacy (P.R.), Institute for Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany; and Department of Mathematics and Programs in Neuroscience and Molecular Biophysics (R.B.), Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306
| | - Joël Tabak
- Centre for Integrative Physiology (P.J.D., M.J.S.), College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, United Kingdom; Biomedical Neuroscience Research Group (J.T.), University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter EX4 4PL, United Kingdom; Division of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Clinical Pharmacy (P.R.), Institute for Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany; and Department of Mathematics and Programs in Neuroscience and Molecular Biophysics (R.B.), Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306
| | - Peter Ruth
- Centre for Integrative Physiology (P.J.D., M.J.S.), College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, United Kingdom; Biomedical Neuroscience Research Group (J.T.), University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter EX4 4PL, United Kingdom; Division of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Clinical Pharmacy (P.R.), Institute for Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany; and Department of Mathematics and Programs in Neuroscience and Molecular Biophysics (R.B.), Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306
| | - Richard Bertram
- Centre for Integrative Physiology (P.J.D., M.J.S.), College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, United Kingdom; Biomedical Neuroscience Research Group (J.T.), University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter EX4 4PL, United Kingdom; Division of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Clinical Pharmacy (P.R.), Institute for Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany; and Department of Mathematics and Programs in Neuroscience and Molecular Biophysics (R.B.), Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306
| | - Michael J Shipston
- Centre for Integrative Physiology (P.J.D., M.J.S.), College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, United Kingdom; Biomedical Neuroscience Research Group (J.T.), University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter EX4 4PL, United Kingdom; Division of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Clinical Pharmacy (P.R.), Institute for Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany; and Department of Mathematics and Programs in Neuroscience and Molecular Biophysics (R.B.), Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306
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15
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Zemkova H, Tomić M, Kucka M, Aguilera G, Stojilkovic SS. Spontaneous and CRH-Induced Excitability and Calcium Signaling in Mice Corticotrophs Involves Sodium, Calcium, and Cation-Conducting Channels. Endocrinology 2016; 157:1576-89. [PMID: 26901094 PMCID: PMC4816721 DOI: 10.1210/en.2015-1899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Transgenic mice expressing the tdimer2(12) form of Discosoma red fluorescent protein under control of the proopiomelanocortin gene's regulatory elements are a useful model for studying corticotrophs. Using these mice, we studied the ion channels and mechanisms controlling corticotroph excitability. Corticotrophs were either quiescent or electrically active, with a 22-mV difference in the resting membrane potential (RMP) between the 2 groups. In quiescent cells, CRH depolarized the membrane, leading to initial single spiking and sustained bursting; in active cells, CRH further facilitated or inhibited electrical activity and calcium spiking, depending on the initial activity pattern and CRH concentration. The stimulatory but not inhibitory action of CRH on electrical activity was mimicked by cAMP independently of the presence or absence of arachidonic acid. Removal of bath sodium silenced spiking and hyperpolarized the majority of cells; in contrast, the removal of bath calcium did not affect RMP but reduced CRH-induced depolarization, which abolished bursting electrical activity and decreased the spiking frequency but not the amplitude of single spikes. Corticotrophs with inhibited voltage-gated sodium channels fired calcium-dependent action potentials, whereas cells with inhibited L-type calcium channels fired sodium-dependent spikes; blockade of both channels abolished spiking without affecting the RMP. These results indicate that the background voltage-insensitive sodium conductance influences RMP, the CRH-depolarization current is driven by a cationic conductance, and the interplay between voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels plays a critical role in determining the status and pattern of electrical activity and calcium signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hana Zemkova
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Physiology Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 142 20 Prague 4, Czech Republic (H.Z.); and Sections on Cellular Signaling (H.Z., M.T., M.K., S.S.S.) and Endocrine Physiology (G.A.), Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-4510
| | - Melanija Tomić
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Physiology Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 142 20 Prague 4, Czech Republic (H.Z.); and Sections on Cellular Signaling (H.Z., M.T., M.K., S.S.S.) and Endocrine Physiology (G.A.), Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-4510
| | - Marek Kucka
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Physiology Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 142 20 Prague 4, Czech Republic (H.Z.); and Sections on Cellular Signaling (H.Z., M.T., M.K., S.S.S.) and Endocrine Physiology (G.A.), Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-4510
| | - Greti Aguilera
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Physiology Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 142 20 Prague 4, Czech Republic (H.Z.); and Sections on Cellular Signaling (H.Z., M.T., M.K., S.S.S.) and Endocrine Physiology (G.A.), Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-4510
| | - Stanko S Stojilkovic
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Physiology Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 142 20 Prague 4, Czech Republic (H.Z.); and Sections on Cellular Signaling (H.Z., M.T., M.K., S.S.S.) and Endocrine Physiology (G.A.), Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-4510
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