1
|
Das Gupta A, Park J, Sorrells JE, Kim H, Krawczynska N, Gamage HEV, Nelczyk AT, Boppart SA, Boppart MD, Nelson ER. Cholesterol Metabolite 27-Hydroxycholesterol Enhances the Secretion of Cancer Promoting Extracellular Vesicles by a Mitochondrial ROS-Induced Impairment of Lysosomal Function. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.05.01.591500. [PMID: 38746134 PMCID: PMC11092642 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.01.591500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) serve as crucial mediators of cell-to-cell communication in normal physiology as well as in diseased states, and have been largely studied in regard to their role in cancer progression. However, the mechanisms by which their biogenesis and secretion are regulated by metabolic or endocrine factors remain unknown. Here, we delineate a mechanism by which EV secretion is regulated by a cholesterol metabolite, 27-Hydroxycholesterol (27HC), where treatment of myeloid immune cells (RAW 264.7 and J774A.1) with 27HC impairs lysosomal homeostasis, leading to shunting of multivesicular bodies (MVBs) away from lysosomal degradation, towards secretion as EVs. This impairment of lysosomal function is caused by mitochondrial dysfunction and subsequent increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS). Interestingly, cotreatment with a mitochondria-targeted antioxidant rescued the lysosomal impairment and attenuated the 27HC-mediated increase in EV secretion. Overall, our findings establish how a cholesterol metabolite regulates EV secretion and paves the way for the development of strategies to regulate cancer progression by controlling EV secretion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anasuya Das Gupta
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
| | - Jaena Park
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, 61801, USA
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
| | - Janet E. Sorrells
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, 61801, USA
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
| | - Hannah Kim
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
| | - Natalia Krawczynska
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
| | - Hashni Epa Vidana Gamage
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
| | - Adam T. Nelczyk
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
| | - Stephen A. Boppart
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, 61801, USA
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
- Carle Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
- Interdisciplinary Health Sciences Institute, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
- NIH/NIBIB Center for Label-free Imaging and Multi-scale Biophotonics (CLIMB), University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, 61801 USA
- Cancer Center at Illinois, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
| | - Marni D. Boppart
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
- Carle Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
- Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
| | - Erik R. Nelson
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology-Anticancer Discovery from Pets to People, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
- Cancer Center at Illinois, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinois, 61801 USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Hu S, Hu Y, Yan W. Extracellular vesicle-mediated interorgan communication in metabolic diseases. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2023; 34:571-582. [PMID: 37394346 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2023.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
The body partially maintains metabolic homeostasis through interorgan communication between metabolic organs under physiological conditions. This crosstalk is known to be mediated by hormones or metabolites, and has recently been expanding to include extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs participate in interorgan communication under physiological and pathological conditions by encapsulating various bioactive cargoes, including proteins, metabolites, and nucleic acids. In this review we summarize the latest findings about the metabolic regulation of EV biogenesis, secretion, and components, and highlight the biological role of EV cargoes in interorgan communication in cancer, obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. We also discuss the potential application of EVs as diagnostic markers, and corresponding therapeutic strategies by EV engineering for both early detection and treatment of metabolic disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Hu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Cell Homeostasis, College of Life Sciences, TaiKang Center for Life and Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yong Hu
- Department of Endocrinology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Wei Yan
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Cell Homeostasis, College of Life Sciences, TaiKang Center for Life and Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Crewe C. Energetic Stress-Induced Metabolic Regulation by Extracellular Vesicles. Compr Physiol 2023; 13:5051-5068. [PMID: 37358503 PMCID: PMC10414774 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c230001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated that extracellular vesicles (EVs) serve powerful and complex functions in metabolic regulation and metabolic-associated disease, although this field of research is still in its infancy. EVs are released into the extracellular space from all cells and carry a wide range of cargo including miRNAs, mRNA, DNA, proteins, and metabolites that have robust signaling effects in receiving cells. EV production is stimulated by all major stress pathways and, as such, has a role in both restoring homeostasis during stress and perpetuating disease. In metabolic regulation, the dominant stress signal is a lack of energy due to either nutrient deficits or damaged mitochondria from nutrient excess. This stress signal is termed "energetic stress," which triggers a robust and evolutionarily conserved response that engages major cellular stress pathways, the ER unfolded protein response, the hypoxia response, the antioxidant response, and autophagy. This article proposes the model that energetic stress is the dominant stimulator of EV release with a focus on metabolically important cells such as hepatocytes, adipocytes, myocytes, and pancreatic β-cells. Furthermore, this article will discuss how the cargo in stress-stimulated EVs regulates metabolism in receiving cells in both beneficial and detrimental ways. © 2023 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 13:5051-5068, 2023.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Clair Crewe
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Lipid Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zhang LJ, Chen F, Liang XR, Ponnusamy M, Qin H, Lin ZJ. Crosstalk among long non-coding RNA, tumor-associated macrophages and small extracellular vesicles in tumorigenesis and dissemination. Front Oncol 2022; 12:1008856. [PMID: 36263199 PMCID: PMC9574020 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.1008856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), which lack protein-coding ability, can regulate cancer cell growth, proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are key components of the tumor microenvironment that have a significant impact on cancer progression. Small extracellular vesicles (sEV) are crucial mediators of intercellular communications. Cancer cell and macrophage-derived sEV can carry lncRNAs that influence the onset and progression of cancer. Dysregulation of lncRNAs, TAMs, and sEV is widely observed in tumors which makes them valuable targets for cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we summarize current updates on the interactions among sEV, lncRNAs, and TAMs in tumors and provide new perspectives on cancer diagnosis and treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Li-jie Zhang
- Key Lab for Immunology in Universities of Shandong Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Feng Chen
- Department of General Surgery, Weifang Traditional Chinese Hospital, Weifang, China
| | - Xiao-ru Liang
- Key Lab for Immunology in Universities of Shandong Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | | | - Hao Qin
- Department of Public Health, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Zhi-juan Lin
- Key Lab for Immunology in Universities of Shandong Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
- *Correspondence: Zhi-juan Lin,
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Morales A, Siemens DR. Testosterone Therapy and Prostate Cancer. Urol Clin North Am 2022; 49:573-582. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ucl.2022.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
6
|
Malingen SA, Rangamani P. Modelling membrane curvature generation using mechanics and machine learning. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, INTERFACE 2022; 19:20220448. [PMID: 36128706 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The deformation of cellular membranes regulates trafficking processes, such as exocytosis and endocytosis. Classically, the Helfrich continuum model is used to characterize the forces and mechanical parameters that cells tune to accomplish membrane shape changes. While this classical model effectively captures curvature generation, one of the core challenges in using it to approximate a biological process is selecting a set of mechanical parameters (including bending modulus and membrane tension) from a large set of reasonable values. We used the Helfrich model to generate a large synthetic dataset from a random sampling of realistic mechanical parameters and used this dataset to train machine-learning models. These models produced promising results, accurately classifying model behaviour and predicting membrane shape from mechanical parameters. We also note emerging methods in machine learning that can leverage the physical insight of the Helfrich model to improve performance and draw greater insight into how cells control membrane shape change.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S A Malingen
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - P Rangamani
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Aguirre RS, Kulkarni A, Becker MW, Lei X, Sarkar S, Ramanadham S, Phelps EA, Nakayasu ES, Sims EK, Mirmira RG. Extracellular vesicles in β cell biology: Role of lipids in vesicle biogenesis, cargo, and intercellular signaling. Mol Metab 2022; 63:101545. [PMID: 35817393 PMCID: PMC9294332 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2022.101545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 07/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a complex autoimmune disorder whose pathogenesis involves an intricate interplay between β cells of the pancreatic islet, other islet cells, and cells of the immune system. Direct intercellular communication within the islet occurs via cell surface proteins and indirect intercellular communication has traditionally been seen as occurring via secreted proteins (e.g., endocrine hormones and cytokines). However, recent literature suggests that extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by β cells constitute an additional and biologically important mechanism for transmitting signals to within the islet. SCOPE OF REVIEW This review summarizes the general mechanisms of EV formation, with a particular focus on how lipids and lipid signaling pathways influence their formation and cargo. We review the implications of EV release from β cells for T1D pathogenesis, how EVs and their cargo might be leveraged as biomarkers of this process, and how EVs might be engineered as a therapeutic candidate to counter T1D outcomes. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS Islet β cells have been viewed as initiators and propagators of the cellular circuit giving rise to autoimmunity in T1D. In this context, emerging literature suggests that EVs may represent a conduit for communication that holds more comprehensive messaging about the β cells from which they arise. As the field of EV biology advances, it opens the possibility that intervening with EV formation and cargo loading could be a novel disease-modifying approach in T1D.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Abhishek Kulkarni
- Department of Medicine and the Kovler Diabetes Center, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Matthew W. Becker
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Xiaoyong Lei
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology & The Comprehensive Diabetes Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Soumyadeep Sarkar
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA
| | - Sasanka Ramanadham
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology & The Comprehensive Diabetes Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Edward A. Phelps
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Ernesto S. Nakayasu
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA
| | - Emily K. Sims
- Department of Pediatrics and the Center for Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Raghavendra G. Mirmira
- Department of Medicine and the Kovler Diabetes Center, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA,Corresponding author. 900 E. 57th St., KCBD 8130, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhou C, Shen S, Moran R, Deng N, Marbán E, Melmed S. Pituitary Somatotroph Adenoma-derived Exosomes: Characterization of Nonhormonal Actions. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2022; 107:379-397. [PMID: 34467411 PMCID: PMC8764361 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgab651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT The identification and biological actions of pituitary-derived exosomes remain elusive. OBJECTIVE This work aimed to validate production of exosomes derived from human and rat pituitary and elucidate their actions. METHODS Isolated extracellular vesicles (EVs) were analyzed by Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis (NTA) and expressed exosomal markers detected by Western blot, using nonpituitary fibroblast FR and myoblast H9C2 cells as controls. Exosome inhibitor GW4869 was employed to detect attenuated EV release. Exosomal RNA contents were characterized by RNA sequencing. In vitro and in vivo hepatocyte signaling alterations responding to GH1-derived exosomes (GH1-exo) were delineated by mRNA sequencing. GH1-exo actions on protein synthesis, cAMP (3',5'-cyclic adenosine 5'-monophosphate) response, cell motility, and metastases were assessed. RESULTS NTA, exosomal marker detection, and GW4869 attenuated EV release, confirming the exosomal identity of pituitary EVs. Hydrocortisone increased exosome secretion in GH1 and GH3 cells, suggesting a stress-associated response. Exosomal RNA contents showed profiles distinct for pituitary cells, and rat primary hepatocytes exposed to GH1-exo exhibited transcriptomic alterations distinct from those elicited by growth hormone or prolactin. Intravenous GH1-exo injection into rats attenuated hepatic Eif2ak2 and Atf4 mRNA expression, both involved in cAMP responses and amino acid biosynthesis. GH1-exo suppressed protein synthesis and forskolin-induced cAMP levels in hepatocytes. GH1-exo-treated HCT116 cells showed dysregulated p53 and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways and attenuated motility of malignant HCT116 cells, and decreased tumor metastases in nude mice harboring splenic HCT116 implants. CONCLUSION Our findings elucidate biological actions of somatotroph-derived exosomes and implicate exosomes as nonhormonal pituitary-derived messengers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cuiqi Zhou
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048, USA
| | - Stephen Shen
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048, USA
| | - Rosemary Moran
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048, USA
| | - Nan Deng
- Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Research Center, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048, USA
| | - Eduardo Marbán
- Smidt Heart Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048, USA
| | - Shlomo Melmed
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048, USA
- Correspondence: Shlomo Melmed, MB ChB, Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Blvd, NT 2015, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Khodamoradi K, Golan R, Dullea A, Ramasamy R. Exosomes as Potential Biomarkers for Erectile Dysfunction, Varicocele, and Testicular Injury. Sex Med Rev 2021; 10:311-322. [PMID: 34838504 DOI: 10.1016/j.sxmr.2021.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Optimal male reproductive health is dependent upon critical mediators of cell-cell communication: exosomes or extracellular vesicles. These vesicles are nano-sized particles released into a variety of bodily fluids, such as blood and semen. Exosomes are highly stable and can carry genetic and other molecules, including DNA, RNA, and proteins, which provide information about their origin cells. OBJECTIVE To identify exosomes as potential biomarkers or therapeutic mediators in male sexual and reproductive disorders like erectile dysfunction (ED), varicocele, and testicular injury. METHODS A PubMed search was performed to highlight all articles available relating to exosomes and extracellular vesicles in the pathogenesis of different male sexual and reproductive disorders, and their importance in clinical use as both diagnostic markers and potential therapeutic mediators. RESULTS Various male reproductive system disorders, such as ED, varicocele, and testicular injury, are linked to increased or decreased levels of exosomes. Exosomes have a higher number of molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, which can give a more precise and comprehensive result when compared to other biomarkers. Exosomes can be considered as plausible diagnostic biomarkers for male sexual and reproductive diseases, with considerable advantages over other diagnostic procedures such as invasive tissue biopsy. Exosomes can carry cargo such certain drugs and therapeutic molecules making them a promising therapeutic approach. Several studies have begun to test treating various male sexual reproductive disorders with exosomes. CONCLUSION Exosomes deliver many components that can regulate gene expression and target signaling pathways. Understanding how extracellular vesicles can be utilized as biomarkers in diagnosing men, particularly those with idiopathic erectile dysfunction, will not only aid in diagnosis but also help with making therapeutic targets. Khodamoradi K, Golan R, Dullea A, et al. Exosomes as Potential Biomarkers for Erectile Dysfunction, Varicocele, and Testicular Injury. Sex Med Rev 2021;XX:XXX-XXX.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kajal Khodamoradi
- Department of Urology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Roei Golan
- Departement of Clinical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Alexandra Dullea
- Department of Urology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Ranjith Ramasamy
- Department of Urology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Sampling, Logistics, and Analytics of Urine for RT-qPCR-based Diagnostics. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13174381. [PMID: 34503191 PMCID: PMC8430584 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13174381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Body fluids in the context of cancer diagnosis are the primary source of liquid biopsy, i.e., biomarker detection that includes blood and serum, urine, and saliva. RNA represents a particular class of biomarkers because it is thought to monitor the current status of gene expression in humans, in organs, and if present, also in tumors. In case of bladder cancer, we developed a scheme that describes, in detail, all steps from the collection of urine samples from patients, stabilization of samples, their transportation, storage, and marker analysis by qPCR-based technology. We find that urine samples prepared according to this protocol show stability of RNA over more than 10 days at unchilled temperatures during shipping. A specific procedure of primer design and amplicon evaluation allows a specific assignment of PCR products to human genomics and transcriptomics data collections. In summary, we describe a technical option for the robust acquisition of urine samples and the quantitative detection of RNA-based tumor markers in case of bladder cancer patients. This protocol is for general use, and we describe that it works for any RNA-based tumor marker in urine of cancer patients.
Collapse
|