A novel mechanism involved in the pathogenesis of Graves ophthalmopathy (GO): clathrin is a possible targeting molecule for inhibiting local immune response in the orbit

2'-O-Galloylhyperin Prevents Tissue Remodeling in Thyroid Eye Disease: Prospects as a Thyrotropin Receptor Antagonist

CONTEXT

Thyroid eye disease (TED) is a challenging condition owing to relentless orbital tissue remodeling, with thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) in orbital fibroblasts (OFs) serving as a promising therapeutic target.

OBJECTIVE

This study seeks to discover potential TSHR inhibitors among US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drugs and evaluate their effects on TED-OFs.

METHODS

Adipose tissues were sourced from the patients with or without TED. Isolated OFs were cultivated in proliferation medium or stimulated for adipogenic/fibrotic differentiation in 2-dimensional/3-dimenstional models, treated with 2'-O-galloylhyperin (2'-O-GH) (0, 5, 20, and 50 μM). Using structure-based virtual screening (SBVS), potential TSHR antagonists were identified. Cellular proliferation was analyzed by 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation, flow cytometry, and spheroid size. Adipogenesis was determined by Oil Red O staining, Western blot, and immunofluorescence (IF). Fibrosis was assessed using wound-healing assays, Western blot and IF. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), hyaluronan (HA), and cytokine were quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

Herein, the FDA-approved drug 2'-O-GH dose-dependently decreased cAMP production and the subsequent cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation stimulated by a TSHR-stimulating monoclonal autoantibody M22, which was reversed by a consistently activated mutation of TSHR (L629F). As expected, 2'-O-GH attenuated lipid accumulation in TED-OFs, along with downregulation of key adipogenic markers, and 2'-O-GH ameliorated HA production during adipogenesis. Notably, 2'-O-GH dampened wound closure and fibrotic differentiation of TED-OF stimulated by transforming growth factor beta 1. Correspondingly, proliferation of TED-OFs was halted by 2'-O-GH.

CONCLUSION

2'-O-GH is promising for prevention of tissue remodeling of TED by exerting inhibitory effects on proliferation, differentiation, and HA deposition by inhibiting TSHR activation, implying its potential therapeutic value for TED.

Autophagy in graves' ophthalmopathy

Graves' ophthalmopathy (GO) is an inflammatory autoimmune disease that affects the eyes. It can significantly alter the quality of life in patients because of its distinctive pathological appearance and the effect on vision. To date, the exact pathological mechanism of GO has not been explicitly discovered. However, several studies have associated autophagy with this disease. Autophagy is a catabolic process that helps maintain homeostasis in all organisms by protecting the cells and tissues from various endogenous and exogenous stress factors. Based on our results, patients affected with GO have comparatively elevated levels of autophagy, which critically affects the pathological mechanism of the GO. In this review, we have summarized the autophagy mechanism in the pathogenesis of GO.

Distinctive Features of Orbital Adipose Tissue (OAT) in Graves' Orbitopathy

Depot specific expansion of orbital-adipose-tissue (OAT) in Graves' Orbitopathy (GO) is associated with lipid metabolism signaling defects. We hypothesize that the unique adipocyte biology of OAT facilitates its expansion in GO. A comprehensive comparison of OAT and white-adipose-tissue (WAT) was performed by light/electron-microscopy, lipidomic and transcriptional analysis using ex vivo WAT, healthy OAT (OAT-H) and OAT from GO (OAT-GO). OAT-H/OAT-GO have a single lipid-vacuole and low mitochondrial number. Lower lipolytic activity and smaller adipocytes of OAT-H/OAT-GO, accompanied by similar essential linoleic fatty acid (FA) and (low) FA synthesis to WAT, revealed a hyperplastic OAT expansion through external FA-uptake via abundant SLC27A6 (FA-transporter) expression. Mitochondrial dysfunction of OAT in GO was apparent, as evidenced by the increased mRNA expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) and mitofusin-2 (MFN2) in OAT-GO compared to OAT-H. Transcriptional profiles of OAT-H revealed high expression of Iroquois homeobox-family (IRX-3&5), and low expression in HOX-family/TBX5 (essential for WAT/BAT (brown-adipose-tissue)/BRITE (BRown-in-whITE) development). We demonstrated unique features of OAT not presented in either WAT or BAT/BRITE. This study reveals that the pathologically enhanced FA-uptake driven hyperplastic expansion of OAT in GO is associated with a depot specific mechanism (the SLC27A6 FA-transporter) and mitochondrial dysfunction. We uncovered that OAT functions as a distinctive fat depot, providing novel insights into adipocyte biology and the pathological development of OAT expansion in GO.

Novel Roles of Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine in Graves' Orbitopathy Therapy by Targeting Orbital Fibroblasts

CONTEXT

Graves' orbitopathy (GO) causes infiltrative exophthalmos by inducing excessive proliferation, adipogenesis, and glycosaminoglycan production in orbital fibroblasts (OFs). Interference with OF autophagy is a potential therapy for proptosis.

OBJECTIVES

Here, we aimed to evaluate the effects of chloroquine (CQ) and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), the autophagy inhibitors commonly used in clinical practice, on OFs.

DESIGN/SETTING/PARTICIPANTS

OFs isolated from patients with GO (GO-OFs) or control individuals (non-GO-OFs) were cultured in proliferation medium (PM) or subjected to differentiation medium. OFs were treated with CQ or HCQ (0, 0.5, 2, and 10 μM), and subsequently examined in vitro.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

CCK-8, EdU incorporation, and flow cytometry assays were used to assess cellular viability. Adipogenesis was assessed with Western blot analysis, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) , and Oil Red O staining. Hyaluronan production was determined by real-time PCR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Autophagy flux was detected through red fluorescent protein (RFP)-green fluorescent protein (GFP)-LC3 fluorescence staining and Western blot analyses.

RESULTS

CQ/HCQ halted proliferation and adipogenesis in GO-OFs in a concentration-dependent manner through blockage of autophagy, phenotypes that were not detected in non-GO-OFs. The inhibitory effect of CQ/HCQ on hyaluronan secretion of GO-OFs was also concentration dependent, mediated by downregulation of hyaluronan synthase 2 rather than hyaluronidases. Moreover, CQ (10 μM) induced GO-OF apoptosis without aggravating oxidative stress.

CONCLUSIONS

The antimalarials CQ/HCQ affect proliferation, adipogenesis, and hyaluronan generation in GO-OFs by inhibiting autophagy, providing evidence that they can be used to treat GO as autophagy inhibitors.

Integrative Analysis of Proteomics and DNA Methylation in Orbital Fibroblasts From Graves' Ophthalmopathy

BACKGROUND

Graves' ophthalmopathy (GO) is a frequent extrathyroidal complication of Graves' hyperthyroidism. Orbital fibroblasts contribute to both orbital tissue inflammation and remodeling in GO, and as such are crucial cellular elements in active GO and inactive GO. However, so far it is largely unknown whether GO disease progression is associated with functional reprogramming of the orbital fibroblast effector function. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare both the proteome and global DNA methylation patterns between orbital fibroblasts isolated from active GO, inactive GO and healthy controls.

METHODS

Orbital fibroblasts from inactive GO (n=5), active GO (n=4) and controls (n=5) were cultured and total protein and DNA was isolated. Labelled and fractionated proteins were analyzed with a liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS). Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD022257. Furthermore, bisulphite-treated DNA was analyzed for methylation pattern with the Illumina Infinium Human Methylation 450K beadchip. In addition, RNA was isolated from the orbital fibroblasts for real-time quantitative (RQ)-PCR. Network and pathway analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Orbital fibroblasts from active GO displayed overexpression of proteins that are typically involved in inflammation, cellular proliferation, hyaluronan synthesis and adipogenesis, while various proteins associated with extracellular matrix (ECM) biology and fibrotic disease, were typically overexpressed in orbital fibroblasts from inactive GO. Moreover, orbital fibroblasts from active GO displayed hypermethylation of genes that linked to inflammation and hypomethylated genes that linked to adipogenesis and autoimmunity. Further analysis revealed networks that contained molecules to which both hypermethylated and hypomethylated genes were linked, including NF-κB, ERK1/2, Alp, RNA polymerase II, Akt and IFNα. In addition, NF-κB, Akt and IFNα were also identified in networks that were derived from the differentially expressed proteins. Generally, poor correlation between protein expression, DNA methylation and mRNA expression was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Both the proteomics and DNA methylation data support that orbital fibroblasts from active GO are involved in inflammation, adipogenesis, and glycosaminoglycan production, while orbital fibroblasts from inactive disease are more skewed towards an active role in extracellular matrix remodeling. This switch in orbital fibroblast effector function may have therapeutic implications and further studies into the underlying mechanism are thus warranted.

CD40 Enhances Sphingolipids in Orbital Fibroblasts: Potential Role of Sphingosine-1-Phosphate in Inflammatory T-Cell Migration in Graves' Orbitopathy

Purpose

Graves' orbitopathy (GO) is an autoimmune orbital disorder associated with Graves' disease caused by thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies. Orbital fibroblasts (OFs) and CD40 play a key role in disease pathogenesis. The bioactive lipid sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) has been implicated in promoting adipogenesis, fibrosis, and inflammation in OFs. We investigated the role of CD40 signaling in inducing S1P activity in orbital inflammation.

Methods

OFs and T cells were derived from GO patients and healthy control (Ctl) persons. S1P abundance in orbital tissues was evaluated by immunofluorescence. OFs were stimulated with CD40 ligand and S1P levels were determined by ELISA. Further, activities of acid sphingomyelinase (ASM), acid ceramidase, and sphingosine kinase were measured by ultraperformance liquid chromatography. Sphingosine and ceramide contents were analyzed by mass spectrometry. Finally, the role for S1P in T-cell attraction was investigated by T-cell migration assays.

Results

GO orbital tissue showed elevated amounts of S1P as compared to control samples. Stimulation of CD40 induced S1P expression in GO-derived OFs, while Ctl-OFs remained unaffected. A significant increase of ASM and sphingosine kinase activities, as well as lipid formation, was observed in GO-derived OFs. Migration assay of T cells in the presence of SphK inhibitor revealed that S1P released by GO-OFs attracted T cells for migration.

Conclusions

The results demonstrated that CD40 ligand stimulates GO fibroblast to produce S1P, which is a driving force for T-cell migration. The results support the use of S1P receptor signaling modulators in GO management.

A New Highly Thyrotropin Receptor-Selective Small-Molecule Antagonist with Potential for the Treatment of Graves' Orbitopathy

BACKGROUND

The thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) is the target for autoimmune thyroid stimulating antibodies (TSAb) triggering hyperthyroidism. Whereas elevated thyroid hormone synthesis by the thyroid in Graves' disease can be treated by antithyroid agents, for the pathogenic activation of TSHR in retro-orbital fibroblasts of the eye, leading to Graves' orbitopathy (GO), no causal TSHR directed therapy is available.

METHODS

Due to the therapeutic gap for severe GO, TSHR inhibitors were identified by high-throughput screening in Chinese hamster ovary cells expressing the TSHR. Stereo-selective synthesis of the screening hits led to the molecule S37, which contains seven chiral centers. Enantiomeric separation of the molecule S37 resulted in the enantiopure molecule S37a-a micro-molar antagonist of thyrotropin-induced cyclic adenosine monophosphate accumulation in HEK 293 cells expressing the TSHR.

RESULTS

The unique rigid bent shape of molecule S37a may mediate the observed high TSHR selectivity. Most importantly, the closely related follitropin and lutropin receptors were not affected by this compound. S37a not only inhibits the TSHR activation by thyrotropin itself but also activation by monoclonal TSAb M22 (human), KSAb1 (murine), and the allosteric small-molecule agonist C2. Disease-related ex vivo studies in HEK 293 cells expressing the TSHR showed that S37a also inhibits cyclic adenosine monophosphate formation by oligoclonal TSAb, which are highly enriched in GO patients' sera. Initial in vivo pharmacokinetic studies revealed no toxicity of S37a and a remarkable 53% oral bioavailability in mice.

CONCLUSION

In summary, a novel highly selective inhibitor for the TSHR is presented, which has promising potential for further development for the treatment of GO.

TSH-receptor-expressing fibrocytes and thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy

Thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy (TAO) is a vexing and undertreated ocular component of Graves disease in which orbital tissues undergo extensive remodelling. My colleagues and I have introduced the concept that fibrocytes expressing the haematopoietic cell antigen CD34 (CD34(+) fibrocytes), which are precursor cells of bone-marrow-derived monocyte lineage, express the TSH receptor (TSHR). These cells also produce several other proteins whose expression was traditionally thought to be restricted to the thyroid gland. TSHR-expressing fibrocytes in which the receptor is activated by its ligand generate extremely high levels of several inflammatory cytokines. Acting in concert with TSHR, the insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R) expressed by orbital fibroblasts and fibrocytes seems to be necessary for TSHR-dependent cytokine production, as anti-IGF-1R blocking antibodies attenuate these proinflammatory actions of TSH. Furthermore, circulating fibrocytes are highly abundant in patients with TAO and seem to infiltrate orbital connective tissues, where they might transition to CD34(+) fibroblasts. My research group has postulated that the infiltration of fibrocytes into the orbit, their unique biosynthetic repertoire and their proinflammatory and profibrotic phenotype account for the characteristic properties exhibited by orbital connective tissues that underlie susceptibility to TAO. These insights, which have emerged in the past few years, might be of use in therapeutically targeting pathogenic orbit-infiltrating fibrocytes selectively by utilizing novel biologic agents that interfere with TSHR and IGF-1R signalling.

Disturbances of modulating molecules (FOXP3, CTLA-4/CD28/B7, and CD40/CD40L) mRNA expressions in the orbital tissue from patients with severe graves' ophthalmopathy

Purpose. To evaluate the relationship between the expression of orbital tissue mRNA for FOXP3, CTLA-4/CD28/CD80/CD86, and CD40/CD40 and the severity of Graves' orbitopathy (GO). Material and Methods. Orbital tissue was obtained from 26 patients with GO, with mild (n = 6) or severe GO (n = 20), and 7 healthy controls. The expression of mRNA of FOXP3, CTLA-4/CD28/CD80/CD86, CD40/CD40L was measured by RT-PCR. TCR and CD3 were evaluated by immunohistochemistry. Results. Higher mRNA for FoxP3 (relative expression: 1.4) and CD40 (1.27) and lower expression of CTLA-4 (0.61) were found in the GO tissues versus controls. In severe GO as compared to mild GO higher mRNA expression for FoxP3 (1.35) and CD40 (1.4) and lower expression for CTLA-4 (0.78), CD28 (0.62), and CD40L (0.56) were found. A positive correlation was found between FOXP3 mRNA and CD3 infiltration (R = 0.796, P = 0.0000001). Conclusions. The enhanced FOXP3 mRNA expression in GO samples may suggest the dysfunction of FOXP3 cells in the severe GO. The diminished mRNA expression of CTLA-4 in severe GO may indicate inadequate T regulatory function. The enhanced mRNA expression of CD40 in severe GO and negative correlation to CRP mRNA may suggest their role in the active and inactive GO.

Effects of prostaglandin F(2α) on adipocyte biology relevant to graves' orbitopathy

BACKGROUND

In Graves' orbitopathy (GO), increased proliferation, excess adipogenesis, and hyaluronan overproduction produce GO exophthalmos. Enophthalmos occurs in some glaucoma patients treated with Bimatoprost (prostaglandin F2α, PGF2α) eye drops. We hypothesized that enophthalmos is secondary to reductions in orbital tissue proliferation, adipogenesis, and/or increased lipolysis. We aimed to determine which of these is affected by PGF2α by using the 3T3-L1 murine preadipocyte cell line and primary human orbital fibroblasts (OFs) from GO patients (n=5) and non-GO (n=5).

METHODS

3T3-L1 cells and orbital OFs were cultured alone or with PGF2α (all experiments used 10(-8) to 10(-6) M) and counted on days 1/2/3 or 5, respectively; cell cycle analysis (flow cytometry) was applied. Adipogenesis (in the presence/absence of PGF2α) was evaluated (day 7 or 15 for 3T3-L1 and primary cells, respectively) morphologically by Oil Red O staining and quantitative polymerase chain reaction measurement of adipogenesis markers (glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and lipoprotein lipase, respectively). For lipolysis, in vitro-differentiated 3T3-L1 or mature orbital adipocytes were incubated with norepinephrine and PGF2α and free glycerol was assayed. Appropriate statistical tests were applied.

RESULTS

The population doubling time of 3T3-L1 was 27.3±1.4 hours-significantly increased by dimethyl sulfoxide 0.02% to 44.6±4.8 hours (p=0.007) and further significantly increased (p=0.049 compared with dimethyl sulfoxide) by 10(-8) M PGF2α to 93.6±19.0 hours, indicating reduced proliferation, which was caused by prolongation of G2/M. GO OFs proliferated significantly more rapidly than non-GO (population doubling time 5.36±0.34 or 6.63±0.35 days, respectively, p=0.035), but the proliferation of both was significantly reduced (dose dependent from 10(-8) M) by PGF2α, again with prolongation of G2/M. Adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 cells was minimally affected by PGF2α when assessed morphologically, but the drug significantly reduced transcripts of the glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase differentiation marker. GO OFs displayed significantly higher adipogenic potential than non-GO, but in both populations, adipogenesis, evaluated by all 3 methods, was significantly reduced (dose dependent from 10(-8) M) by PGF2α. There was no effect of PGF2α on basal or norepinephrine-induced lipolysis, in 3T3-L1 or human OFs, either GO or non-GO.

CONCLUSIONS

The results demonstrate that PGF2α significantly reduces proliferation and adipogenesis and that human OFs are more sensitive to its effects than 3T3-L1. Consequently, PGF2α could be effective in the treatment of GO.

Graves' orbitopathy: imperfect treatments for a rare disease

Graves' orbitopathy (GO) is the most frequent and invalidating extrathyroidal expression of Graves' disease. Its incidence and prevalence are, however, low. About three quarters of Graves' patients have no GO at diagnosis, and moderate-to-severe and severe forms represent no more that 5-6% of cases. Progression to severe forms occurs rarely, but it may be caused by risk factors, the most important being smoking and poor control of thyroid dysfunction. Lot of progress has been recently achieved in the understanding of GO pathogenesis, while the disease remains a therapeutic challenge and dilemma. Common treatments for moderate-to-severe and active forms of GO (glucocorticoids and orbital radiotherapy) frequently provide incomplete responses and may be followed by relapse or progression of GO. After the disease has been inactivated by medical treatment, many patients need rehabilitative surgery for residual manifestations (orbital decompression for exophthalmos, squint surgery for extraocular muscle dysfunction, eyelid surgery for eyelid malposition). Novel pharmacological treatments are on the horizon and might target pathogenetic mechanisms of the disease better than glucocorticoids. Clinical evidence concerning their efficacy and safety is presently lacking.

Association of IL12B polymorphisms with susceptibility to Graves ophthalmopathy in a Taiwan Chinese population

Background

Interleukin 12B (IL12B) gene polymorphisms have been linked to several inflammatory diseases, but their role in the development of Graves ophthalmopathy (GO) in Graves disease (GD) patients is unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the disease association of IL12B single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).

Methods

A Taiwan Chinese population comprising 200 GD patients with GO and 271 GD patients without GO was genotyped using an allele-specific extension and ligation method. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium was estimated using the chi-square test. Allele and genotype frequencies were compared between GD patients with and without GO using the chi-square test.

Results

The genotype and allele frequencies of examined SNPs did not differ between GD patients with and without GO. Although the genotype distribution remained nonsignificant in the sex-stratified analyses, the frequency of the T allele at SNP rs1003199 was significantly higher in patients with GO in the male cohort (P = 6.00 × 10^-3). In addition, haplotypes of IL12B may be used to predict the risk of GO (P = 1.70 × 10^-2); however, we could not prove the statistical significance of analysis after applying the Bonferroni correction.

Conclusions

Our results provide new information that the examined IL12B gene polymorphisms may be associated with susceptibility to GO in the Taiwan Chinese population in a sex-specific manner. This conclusion requires further investigation.