1
|
Mohammadzadeh P, Amberg GC. AXL/Gas6 signaling mechanisms in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1212104. [PMID: 37396176 PMCID: PMC10310921 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1212104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
AXL is a receptor tyrosine kinase commonly associated with a variety of human cancers. Along with its ligand Gas6 (growth arrest-specific protein 6), AXL is emerging as an important regulator of neuroendocrine development and function. AXL signaling in response to Gas6 binding impacts neuroendocrine structure and function at the level of the brain, pituitary, and gonads. During development, AXL has been identified as an upstream inhibitor of gonadotropin receptor hormone (GnRH) production and also plays a key role in the migration of GnRH neurons from the olfactory placode to the forebrain. AXL is implicated in reproductive diseases including some forms of idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and evidence suggests that AXL is required for normal spermatogenesis. Here, we highlight research describing AXL/Gas6 signaling mechanisms with a focus on the molecular pathways related to neuroendocrine function in health and disease. In doing so, we aim to present a concise account of known AXL/Gas6 signaling mechanisms to identify current knowledge gaps and inspire future research.
Collapse
|
2
|
Abstract
The diagnostic suspicion of congenital central hypogonadism is based on clinical signs. Biochemical confirmation is challenging, especially after the postnatal activation stage of the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis. Sertoli cell markers, like AMH and inhibin B, have become useful tools for the diagnosis of male central hypogonadism during childhood. Different mechanisms can participate in the aetiopathogenesis of central hypogonadism, leading to a deficiency in the production of gonadotrophins. Advances in genetic studies, mainly next generation sequencing techniques, have allowed the discovery of a large number of genes related to central hypogonadism. However, a causal variant is found in approximately half of the patients. Central hypogonadism has been classically described as a pathology with variable expressivity and incomplete penetrance. Currently, these characteristics are known to be partially explained by the presence of oligogenicity, that is the participation of variants in more than one gene in the aetiology of central hypogonadism in the same patient.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Romina P Grinspon
- Centro de Investigaciones Endocrinológicas "Dr. César Bergadá" (CEDIE), CONICET - FEI - División de, Endocrinología, Hospital de Niños Ricardo Gutiérrez, C1425EFD, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
Idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (IHH) is a group of rare developmental disorders characterized by low gonadotropin levels in the face of low sex steroid hormone concentrations. IHH is practically divided into two major groups according to the olfactory function: normal sense of smell (normosmia) nIHH, and reduced sense of smell (hyposmia/anosmia) Kallmann syndrome (KS). Although mutations in more than 50 genes have been associated with IHH so far, only half of those cases were explained by gene mutations. Various combinations of deleterious variants in different genes as causes of IHH have been increasingly recognized (Oligogenic etiology). In addition to the complexity of inheritance patterns, the spontaneous or sex steroid-induced clinical recovery from IHH, which is seen in approximately 10–20% of cases, blurs further the phenotype/genotype relationship in IHH, and poses challenging steps in new IHH gene discovery. Beyond helping for clinical diagnostics, identification of the genetic mutations in the pathophysiology of IHH is hoped to shed light on the central governance of the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis through life stages. This review aims to summarize the genetic etiology of IHH and discuss the clinical and physiological ramifications of the gene mutations.
Collapse
|
4
|
Oleari R, Massa V, Cariboni A, Lettieri A. The Differential Roles for Neurodevelopmental and Neuroendocrine Genes in Shaping GnRH Neuron Physiology and Deficiency. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:9425. [PMID: 34502334 PMCID: PMC8431607 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons are hypothalamic neuroendocrine cells that control sexual reproduction. During embryonic development, GnRH neurons migrate from the nose to the hypothalamus, where they receive inputs from several afferent neurons, following the axonal scaffold patterned by nasal nerves. Each step of GnRH neuron development depends on the orchestrated action of several molecules exerting specific biological functions. Mutations in genes encoding for these essential molecules may cause Congenital Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism (CHH), a rare disorder characterized by GnRH deficiency, delayed puberty and infertility. Depending on their action in the GnRH neuronal system, CHH causative genes can be divided into neurodevelopmental and neuroendocrine genes. The CHH genetic complexity, combined with multiple inheritance patterns, results in an extreme phenotypic variability of CHH patients. In this review, we aim at providing a comprehensive and updated description of the genes thus far associated with CHH, by dissecting their biological relevance in the GnRH system and their functional relevance underlying CHH pathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Oleari
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milano, Italy;
| | - Valentina Massa
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milano, Italy;
- CRC Aldo Ravelli for Neurotechnology and Experimental Brain Therapeutics, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milano, Italy
| | - Anna Cariboni
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milano, Italy;
| | - Antonella Lettieri
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milano, Italy;
- CRC Aldo Ravelli for Neurotechnology and Experimental Brain Therapeutics, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milano, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Abstract
Tyro3, Axl and Mertk are members of the TAM family of tyrosine kinase receptors. TAMs are activated by two structurally homologous ligands GAS6 and PROS1. TAM receptors and ligands are widely distributed and often co-expressed in the same cells allowing diverse functions across many systems including the immune, reproductive, vascular, and the developing as well as adult nervous systems. This review will focus specifically on TAM signaling in the nervous system, highlighting the essential roles this pathway fulfills in maintaining cell survival and homeostasis, cellular functions such as phagocytosis, immunity and tissue repair. Dysfunctional TAM signaling can cause complications in development, disruptions in homeostasis which can rouse autoimmunity, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. The development of therapeutics modulating TAM activities in the nervous system has great prospects, however, foremost we need a complete understanding of TAM signaling pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tal Burstyn-Cohen
- Institute for Dental Sciences, Faculty of Dental Medicine, The Hebrew University-Hadassah, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Arielle Hochberg
- Institute for Dental Sciences, Faculty of Dental Medicine, The Hebrew University-Hadassah, Jerusalem, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Louden ED, Poch A, Kim HG, Ben-Mahmoud A, Kim SH, Layman LC. Genetics of hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism-Human and mouse genes, inheritance, oligogenicity, and genetic counseling. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2021; 534:111334. [PMID: 34062169 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2021.111334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, which may be normosmic (nHH) or anosmic/hyposmic, known as Kallmann syndrome (KS), is due to gonadotropin-releasing hormone deficiency, which results in absent puberty and infertility. Investigation of the genetic basis of nHH/KS over the past 35 years has yielded a substantial increase in our understanding, as variants in 44 genes in OMIM account for ~50% of cases. The first genes for KS (ANOS1) and nHH (GNRHR) were followed by the discovery that FGFR1 variants may cause either nHH or KS. Associated anomalies include midline facial defects, neurologic deficits, cardiac anomalies, and renal agenesis, among others. Mouse models for all but one gene (ANOS1) generally support findings in humans. About half of the known genes implicated in nHH/KS are inherited as autosomal dominant and half are autosomal recessive, whereas only 7% are X-linked recessive. Digenic and oligogenic inheritance has been reported in 2-20% of patients, most commonly with variants in genes that may result in either nHH or KS inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion. In vitro analyses have only been conducted for both gene variants in eight cases and for one gene variant in 20 cases. Rigorous confirmation that two gene variants in the same individual cause the nHH/KS phenotype is lacking for most. Clinical diagnosis is probably best accomplished by targeted next generation sequencing of the known candidate genes with confirmation by Sanger sequencing. Elucidation of the genetic basis of nHH/KS has resulted in an enhanced understanding of this disorder, as well as normal puberty, which makes genetic diagnosis clinically relevant.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erica D Louden
- Section of Reproductive Endocrinology, Infertility, & Genetics, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Department of Neuroscience & Regenerative Medicine, Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia at Augusta University, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Alexandra Poch
- Section of Reproductive Endocrinology, Infertility, & Genetics, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Department of Neuroscience & Regenerative Medicine, Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia at Augusta University, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Hyung-Goo Kim
- Neurological Disorders Research Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Afif Ben-Mahmoud
- Neurological Disorders Research Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Soo-Hyun Kim
- Molecular and Clinical Sciences Research Institute, St. George's, University of London, Cranmer Terrace, London, SW17 0RE, United Kingdom
| | - Lawrence C Layman
- Section of Reproductive Endocrinology, Infertility, & Genetics, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Department of Neuroscience & Regenerative Medicine, Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia at Augusta University, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Greer C, Bhakta H, Ghanem L, Refai F, Linn E, Avella M. Deleterious variants in genes regulating mammalian reproduction in Neanderthals, Denisovans and extant humans. Hum Reprod 2021; 36:734-755. [PMID: 33417716 DOI: 10.1093/humrep/deaa347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
STUDY QUESTION Were Neanderthals and Denisovans (referred here also as extinct hominidae) carrying deleterious variants in genes regulating reproduction? SUMMARY ANSWER The majority of extinct hominidae analyzed here, presented a considerable number of deleterious variants per individual in proteins regulating different aspects of reproduction, including gonad and uterine function, and gametogenesis. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY Neanderthals, Denisovans and extant humans were interfertile and hybridized while occupying geographically overlapping areas in Europe and Asia. This is evidenced by the small archaic genome component (average ∼2%) present in non-African extant humans. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION The genome of eight extinct hominidae, together with five human genome databases, plus 44 mothers and 48 fathers (fertile controls), were screened to look for deleterious variants in 1734 protein-coding genes regulating reproduction. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS Ancient DNA from six Neanderthals and two Denisovans dated between ∼82 000 and 43 000 calibrated years was retrieved from the public European Nucleotide Archive. The hominins analyzed include Altai, Vindija 33.15, 33.19, 33.25 and 33.26, El Sidron 1253, Denisova 3 and 11. Their DNA was analyzed using the CLC Genomics Workbench 12, by mapping overlapping paired-end reads (Illumina, FASTQ files) to the human genome assembly GRCh37 (hg19) (Vindija 33.19, 33.25, 33.26, Denisova 3 and Denisova 11) or by analyzing BAM files (Altai, El Sidron 1253 and Vindija 33.15) (human genome reference, GRCh37 (hg19)). Non-synonymous reproductive variants were classified as deleterious or tolerated (PolyPhen-2 and SIFT analyses) and were compared to deleterious variants obtained from extant human genome databases (Genome Aggregation Database (GnomAD), 1000 Genomes, the Haplotype Map (HapMap), Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Database (dbSNPs)) across different populations. A genetic intersection between extant or extinct DNA variants and other genetic disorders was evaluated by annotating the obtained variants with the Clinical Variant (ClinVar) database. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE Among the eight extinct hominidae analyzed, a total of 9650 non-synonymous variants (only coverage ≥20 reads included; frameshift mutations were excluded) in 1734 reproductive protein-coding genes were found, 24% of which were classified as deleterious. The majority (73%) of the deleterious alleles present in extant humans that are shared between extant humans and extinct hominidae were found to be rare (<1%) in extant human populations. A set of 8044 variants were found uniquely in extinct hominidae. At the single-gene level, no extinct individual was found to be homozygous for deleterious variants in genes necessary for gamete recognition and fusion, and no higher chance of embryo-lethality (calculated by Mendelian Genetics) was found upon simulated mating between extant human and extinct hominidae compared to extant human-extant human. However, three of the eight extinct hominidae were found to be homozygous for 48-69 deleterious variants in 55 genes controlling ovarian and uterine functions, or oogenesis (AKAP1, BUB1B, CCDC141, CDC73, DUSP6, ESR1, ESR2, PATL2, PSMC3IP, SEMA3A, WT1 and WNT4). Moreover, we report the distribution of nine Neanderthal variants in genes associated with a human fertility phenotype found in extant human populations, one of which has been associated with polycystic ovarian syndrome and primary congenital glaucoma. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION While analyzing archaic DNA, stringent filtering criteria were adopted to screen for deleterious variants in Neanderthals and Denisovans, which could result in missing a number of variants. Such restraints preserve the potential for detection of additional deleterious variants in reproductive proteins in extinct hominidae. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS This study provides a comprehensive overview of putatively deleterious variants in extant human populations and extinct individuals occurring in 1734 protein-coding genes controlling reproduction and provides the fundaments for future functional studies of extinct variants in human reproduction. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S) This study was supported by the Department of Biological Science and by the Office of Research and Sponsored Programs at the University of Tulsa (Faculty Research Grant and Faculty Research Summer Fellowship) to M.A. and the University of Tulsa, Tulsa Undergraduate Research Challenge (TURC) program to E.L.; no conflict of interest to declare. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER N/A.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cory Greer
- Department of Biological Science, College of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74104, USA
| | - Hanisha Bhakta
- Department of Biological Science, College of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74104, USA
| | - Lillian Ghanem
- Department of Biological Science, College of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74104, USA
| | - Fares Refai
- Department of Biological Science, College of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74104, USA
| | - Emma Linn
- Department of Biological Science, College of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74104, USA
| | - Matteo Avella
- Department of Biological Science, College of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74104, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Millar AC, Faghfoury H, Bieniek JM. Genetics of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Transl Androl Urol 2021; 10:1401-1409. [PMID: 33850776 PMCID: PMC8039576 DOI: 10.21037/tau.2020.03.33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Male congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (CHH) is a heterogenous group of genetic disorders that cause impairment in the production or action of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). These defects result in dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal hormone axis, leading to low testosterone levels and impaired fertility. Genetic testing techniques have expanded our knowledge of the underlying mechanisms contributing to CHH including over 30 genes to date implicated in the development of CHH. In some cases, non-reproductive signs or symptoms can give clues as to the putative genetic etiology, but many cases remain undiagnosed with less than 50% identified with a specific gene defect. This leads to many patients labelled as “idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism”. Medical and family history as well as physical exam and laboratory features can aid in the identification of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (HH) that is associated with specific medical syndromes or associated with other pituitary hormonal deficiencies. Genetic testing strategies are moving away from the classic practice of testing for only a few of the most commonly affected genes and instead utilizing next generation sequencing techniques that allow testing of numerous potential gene targets simultaneously. Treatment of CHH is dependent on the individual’s desire to preserve fertility and commonly include human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and recombinant follicle stimulating hormone (rFSH) to stimulate testosterone production and spermatogenesis. In situations where fertility is not desired, testosterone replacement therapies are widely offered in order to maintain virilization and sexual function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adam C Millar
- Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Mount Sinai Hospital and Toronto General Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Hanna Faghfoury
- Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Medicine, Fred A Litwin and Family Centre in Genetic Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital and Toronto General Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Jared M Bieniek
- Tallwood Urology & Kidney Institute, Hartford HealthCare, Hartford, CT, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Zhang J, Tang SY, Zhu XB, Li P, Lu JQ, Cong JS, Wang LB, Zhang F, Li Z. Whole exome sequencing and trio analysis to broaden the variant spectrum of genes in idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Asian J Androl 2021; 23:288-293. [PMID: 33208564 PMCID: PMC8152424 DOI: 10.4103/aja.aja_65_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Dozens of genes are associated with idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (IHH) and an oligogenic etiology has been suggested. However, the associated genes may account for only approximately 50% cases. In addition, a genomic systematic pedigree analysis is still lacking. Here, we conducted whole exome sequencing (WES) on 18 unrelated men affected by IHH and their corresponding parents. Notably, one reported and 10 novel variants in eight known IHH causative genes (AXL, CCDC141, CHD7, DMXL2, FGFR1, PNPLA6, POLR3A, and PROKR2), nine variants in nine recently reported candidate genes (DCAF17, DCC, EGF, IGSF10, NOTCH1, PDE3A, RELN, SLIT2, and TRAPPC9), and four variants in four novel candidate genes for IHH (CCDC88C, CDON, GADL1, and SPRED3) were identified in 77.8% (14/18) of IHH cases. Among them, eight (8/18, 44.4%) cases carried more than one variant in IHH-related genes, supporting the oligogenic model. Interestingly, we found that those variants tended to be maternally inherited (maternal with n = 17 vs paternal with n = 7; P = 0.028). Our further retrospective investigation of published reports replicated the maternal bias (maternal with n = 46 vs paternal with n = 28; P = 0.024). Our study extended a variant spectrum for IHH and provided thefirst evidence that women are probably more tolerant to variants of IHH-related genes than men.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhang
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, NHC Key Laboratory of Reproduction Regulation (Shanghai Institute of Planned Parenthood Research), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Shu-Yan Tang
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, NHC Key Laboratory of Reproduction Regulation (Shanghai Institute of Planned Parenthood Research), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Xiao-Bin Zhu
- Department of Andrology, Center for Men's Health, Urologic Medical Center, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200080, China
| | - Peng Li
- Department of Andrology, Center for Men's Health, Urologic Medical Center, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200080, China
| | - Jian-Qi Lu
- Department of Research Institute, Reproduction Medical Center, The first Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Jiang-Shan Cong
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, NHC Key Laboratory of Reproduction Regulation (Shanghai Institute of Planned Parenthood Research), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Ling-Bo Wang
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, NHC Key Laboratory of Reproduction Regulation (Shanghai Institute of Planned Parenthood Research), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Feng Zhang
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, NHC Key Laboratory of Reproduction Regulation (Shanghai Institute of Planned Parenthood Research), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Zheng Li
- Department of Andrology, Center for Men's Health, Urologic Medical Center, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200080, China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Yatsenko SA, Rajkovic A. Genetics of human female infertility†. Biol Reprod 2020; 101:549-566. [PMID: 31077289 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioz084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Revised: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
About 10% of women of reproductive age are unable to conceive or carry a pregnancy to term. Female factors alone account for at least 35% of all infertility cases and comprise a wide range of causes affecting ovarian development, maturation of oocytes, and fertilization competence, as well as the potential of a fertilized egg for preimplantation development, implantation, and fetal growth. Genetic abnormalities leading to infertility in females comprise large chromosome abnormalities, submicroscopic chromosome deletion and duplications, and DNA sequence variations in the genes that control numerous biological processes implicated in oogenesis, maintenance of ovarian reserve, hormonal signaling, and anatomical and functional development of female reproductive organs. Despite the great number of genes implicated in reproductive physiology by the study of animal models, only a subset of these genes is associated with human infertility. In this review, we mainly focus on genetic alterations identified in humans and summarize recent knowledge on the molecular pathways of oocyte development and maturation, the crucial role of maternal-effect factors during embryogenesis, and genetic conditions associated with ovarian dysgenesis, primary ovarian insufficiency, early embryonic lethality, and infertility.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana A Yatsenko
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA.,Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA.,Magee-Womens Research Institute, Pittsburgh, PA.,Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Aleksandar Rajkovic
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA.,Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA.,Institute of Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Butz H, Nyírő G, Kurucz PA, Likó I, Patócs A. Molecular genetic diagnostics of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism: from panel design towards result interpretation in clinical practice. Hum Genet 2020; 140:113-134. [PMID: 32222824 PMCID: PMC7864839 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-020-02148-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (CHH) is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous congenital disease. Symptoms cover a wide spectrum from mild forms to complex phenotypes due to gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) deficiency. To date, more than 40 genes have been identified as pathogenic cause of CHH. These genes could be grouped into two major categories: genes controlling development and GnRH neuron migration and genes being responsible for neuroendocrine regulation and GnRH neuron function. High-throughput, next-generation sequencing (NGS) allows to analyze numerous gene sequences at the same time. Nowadays, whole exome or whole genome datasets could be investigated in clinical genetic diagnostics due to their favorable cost-benefit. The increasing genetic data generated by NGS reveal novel candidate genes and gene variants with unknown significance (VUSs). To provide clinically valuable genetic results, complex clinical and bioinformatics work are needed. The multifaceted genetics of CHH, the variable mode of inheritance, the incomplete penetrance, variable expressivity and oligogenic characteristics further complicate the interpretation of the genetic variants detected. The objective of this work, apart from reviewing the currently known genes associated with CHH, was to summarize the advantages and disadvantages of the NGS-based platforms and through the authors' own practice to guide through the whole workflow starting from gene panel design, performance analysis and result interpretation. Based on our results, a genetic diagnosis was clearly identified in 21% of cases tested (8/38).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Henriett Butz
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, Budapest, 1089, Hungary.,Hereditary Tumours Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences and Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.,Department of Molecular Genetics, National Institute of Oncology, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gábor Nyírő
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, Budapest, 1089, Hungary.,Molecular Medicine Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences and Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.,2nd Department of Internal Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Petra Anna Kurucz
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, Budapest, 1089, Hungary
| | - István Likó
- Hereditary Tumours Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences and Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Attila Patócs
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, Budapest, 1089, Hungary. .,Hereditary Tumours Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences and Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary. .,Department of Molecular Genetics, National Institute of Oncology, Budapest, Hungary.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Ohlsson Gotby V, Söder O, Frisén L, Serlachius E, Bölte S, Almqvist C, Larsson H, Lichtenstein P, Tammimies K. Hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism, delayed puberty and risk for neurodevelopmental disorders. J Neuroendocrinol 2019; 31:e12803. [PMID: 31630461 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 08/31/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism (HH) is a rare disorder that manifests absent puberty and infertility. Genetic syndromes with hypogonadism, such as Klinefelter syndrome, are associated with an increased risk of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). However, it is not clear whether patients with HH or transient delayed puberty in general, have an increased risk of NDDs. We performed a register-based study on a national cohort of 264 patients with HH and 7447 patients diagnosed with delayed puberty that was matched with 2640 and 74 470 controls, respectively. The outcome was defined as having any of the following NDD diagnoses: (i) autism spectrum disorder (ASD); (ii) attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); or (iii) intellectual disability (ID). Additional sensitivity analyses were performed to control for different parental and birth variables, as well as diagnosed malformation syndromes and chromosomal anomalies (ie, Down's and Turner syndromes). Patients with HH had increased risk for being diagnosed with ASD (odds ratio [OR] = 5.7; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.6-12.6), ADHD (OR = 3.0; 95% CI = 1.8-5.1) and ID (OR = 18.0; 95% CI = 8.9-36.3) compared to controls. Patients with delayed puberty also had a significantly increased risk of being diagnosed with an NDD. These associations remained significant after adjustments. This is the first study to demonstrate a significant association between HH, delayed puberty and NDDs in a population-based cohort. Clinicians should be aware of the overlap between these disorders. Further studies should explore the mechanisms behind these associations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vide Ohlsson Gotby
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Olle Söder
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Louise Frisén
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Karolinska Institutete, Stockholm, Sweden
- Stockholm Health Care Services, Stockholm County Council, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Eva Serlachius
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Karolinska Institutete, Stockholm, Sweden
- Stockholm Health Care Services, Stockholm County Council, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sven Bölte
- Stockholm Health Care Services, Stockholm County Council, Stockholm, Sweden
- Division of Neuropsychiatry, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders at Karolinska Institutet (KIND), Centre for Psychiatry Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Catarina Almqvist
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Astrid Lindgren Children's Hospital, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Henrik Larsson
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- School of Medical Sciences, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Paul Lichtenstein
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kristiina Tammimies
- Division of Neuropsychiatry, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders at Karolinska Institutet (KIND), Centre for Psychiatry Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Astrid Lindgren Children's Hospital, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
TAM Receptor Pathways at the Crossroads of Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration. DISEASE MARKERS 2019; 2019:2387614. [PMID: 31636733 PMCID: PMC6766163 DOI: 10.1155/2019/2387614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that pathogenic mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration are strongly linked with neuroinflammatory responses. Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk (TAM receptors) constitute a subgroup of the receptor tyrosine kinase family, cell surface receptors which transmit signals from the extracellular space to the cytoplasm and nucleus. TAM receptors and the corresponding ligands, Growth Arrest Specific 6 and Protein S, are expressed in different tissues, including the nervous system, playing complex roles in tissue repair, inflammation and cell survival, proliferation, and migration. In the nervous system, TAM receptor signalling modulates neurogenesis and neuronal migration, synaptic plasticity, microglial activation, phagocytosis, myelination, and peripheral nerve repair, resulting in potential interest in neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Multiple Sclerosis. In Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases, a role of TAM receptors in neuronal survival and pathological protein aggregate clearance has been suggested, while in Multiple Sclerosis TAM receptors are involved in myelination and demyelination processes. To better clarify roles and pathways involving TAM receptors may have important therapeutic implications, given the fine modulation of multiple molecular processes which could be reached. In this review, we summarise the roles of TAM receptors in the central nervous system, focusing on the regulation of immune responses and microglial activities and analysing in vitro and in vivo studies regarding TAM signalling involvement in neurodegeneration.
Collapse
|
14
|
Cho HJ, Shan Y, Whittington NC, Wray S. Nasal Placode Development, GnRH Neuronal Migration and Kallmann Syndrome. Front Cell Dev Biol 2019; 7:121. [PMID: 31355196 PMCID: PMC6637222 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2019.00121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of Gonadotropin releasing hormone-1 (GnRH) neurons is important for a functional reproduction system in vertebrates. Disruption of GnRH results in hypogonadism and if accompanied by anosmia is termed Kallmann Syndrome (KS). From their origin in the nasal placode, GnRH neurons migrate along the olfactory-derived vomeronasal axons to the nasal forebrain junction and then turn caudally into the developing forebrain. Although research on the origin of GnRH neurons, their migration and genes associated with KS has identified multiple factors that influence development of this system, several aspects still remain unclear. This review discusses development of the olfactory system, factors that regulate GnRH neuron formation and development of the olfactory system, migration of the GnRH neurons from the nose into the brain, and mutations in humans with KS that result from disruption of normal GnRH/olfactory systems development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Ju Cho
- Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Yufei Shan
- Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Niteace C Whittington
- Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Susan Wray
- Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Bouilly J, Messina A, Papadakis G, Cassatella D, Xu C, Acierno JS, Tata B, Sykiotis G, Santini S, Sidis Y, Elowe-Gruau E, Phan-Hug F, Hauschild M, Bouloux PM, Quinton R, Lang-Muritano M, Favre L, Marino L, Giacobini P, Dwyer AA, Niederländer NJ, Pitteloud N. DCC/NTN1 complex mutations in patients with congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism impair GnRH neuron development. Hum Mol Genet 2019; 27:359-372. [PMID: 29202173 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (CHH) is a rare genetic disease characterized by absent puberty and infertility due to GnRH deficiency, and is often associated with anosmia [Kallmann syndrome (KS)]. The genetic etiology of CHH is heterogeneous, and more than 30 genes have been implicated in approximately 50% of patients with CHH. We hypothesized that genes encoding axon-guidance proteins containing fibronectin type-III (FN3) domains (similar to ANOS1, the first gene associated with KS), are mutated in CHH. We performed whole-exome sequencing in a cohort of 133 CHH probands to test this hypothesis, and identified rare sequence variants (RSVs) in genes encoding for the FN3-domain encoding protein deleted in colorectal cancer (DCC) and its ligand Netrin-1 (NTN1). In vitro studies of these RSVs revealed altered intracellular signaling associated with defects in cell morphology, and confirmed five heterozygous DCC mutations in 6 probands-5 of which presented as KS. Two KS probands carry heterozygous mutations in both DCC and NTN1 consistent with oligogenic inheritance. Further, we show that Netrin-1 promotes migration in immortalized GnRH neurons (GN11 cells). This study implicates DCC and NTN1 mutations in the pathophysiology of CHH consistent with the role of these two genes in the ontogeny of GnRH neurons in mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Justine Bouilly
- Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Service, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Faculty of Biology & Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Andrea Messina
- Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Service, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Faculty of Biology & Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Georgios Papadakis
- Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Service, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Faculty of Biology & Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Daniele Cassatella
- Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Service, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Faculty of Biology & Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Cheng Xu
- Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Service, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Faculty of Biology & Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - James S Acierno
- Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Service, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Faculty of Biology & Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Brooke Tata
- UMR-S 1172-JPArc-Centre de Recherche Jean-Pierre AUBERT Neurosciences et Cancer, University of Lille, 59000 Lille, France.,Laboratory of Development and Plasticity of the Neuroendocrine Brain, Inserm, UMR-S 1172, 59000 Lille, France
| | - Gerasimos Sykiotis
- Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Service, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Faculty of Biology & Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sara Santini
- Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Service, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Faculty of Biology & Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Yisrael Sidis
- Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Service, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Faculty of Biology & Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Eglantine Elowe-Gruau
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Obesity, Department of Pediatrics, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Franziska Phan-Hug
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Obesity, Department of Pediatrics, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michael Hauschild
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Obesity, Department of Pediatrics, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Pierre-Marc Bouloux
- Center for Neuroendocrinology, Royal Free Campus, University College Medical School, London WC1E6BT, UK
| | - Richard Quinton
- Institute of Genetic Medicine and the Royal Victoria Infirmary, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE13BZ, UK
| | - Mariarosaria Lang-Muritano
- Department of Endocrinology/Diabetology and Children's Research Centre, University Children's Hospital Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lucie Favre
- Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Service, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Faculty of Biology & Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Laura Marino
- Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Service, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Faculty of Biology & Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Paolo Giacobini
- UMR-S 1172-JPArc-Centre de Recherche Jean-Pierre AUBERT Neurosciences et Cancer, University of Lille, 59000 Lille, France.,Laboratory of Development and Plasticity of the Neuroendocrine Brain, Inserm, UMR-S 1172, 59000 Lille, France
| | - Andrew A Dwyer
- Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Service, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Faculty of Biology & Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland.,Institute of Higher Education and Research in Healthcare, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas J Niederländer
- Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Service, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Faculty of Biology & Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nelly Pitteloud
- Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Service, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Faculty of Biology & Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland.,Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Obesity, Department of Pediatrics, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Guo MH, Plummer L, Chan YM, Hirschhorn JN, Lippincott MF. Burden Testing of Rare Variants Identified through Exome Sequencing via Publicly Available Control Data. Am J Hum Genet 2018; 103:522-534. [PMID: 30269813 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The genetic causes of many Mendelian disorders remain undefined. Factors such as lack of large multiplex families, locus heterogeneity, and incomplete penetrance hamper these efforts for many disorders. Previous work suggests that gene-based burden testing-where the aggregate burden of rare, protein-altering variants in each gene is compared between case and control subjects-might overcome some of these limitations. The increasing availability of large-scale public sequencing databases such as Genome Aggregation Database (gnomAD) can enable burden testing using these databases as controls, obviating the need for additional control sequencing for each study. However, there exist various challenges with using public databases as controls, including lack of individual-level data, differences in ancestry, and differences in sequencing platforms and data processing. To illustrate the approach of using public data as controls, we analyzed whole-exome sequencing data from 393 individuals with idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (IHH), a rare disorder with significant locus heterogeneity and incomplete penetrance against control subjects from gnomAD (n = 123,136). We leveraged presumably benign synonymous variants to calibrate our approach. Through iterative analyses, we systematically addressed and overcame various sources of artifact that can arise when using public control data. In particular, we introduce an approach for highly adaptable variant quality filtering that leads to well-calibrated results. Our approach "re-discovered" genes previously implicated in IHH (FGFR1, TACR3, GNRHR). Furthermore, we identified a significant burden in TYRO3, a gene implicated in hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in mice. Finally, we developed a user-friendly software package TRAPD (Test Rare vAriants with Public Data) for performing gene-based burden testing against public databases.
Collapse
|
17
|
Withdrawn: Discovering Genes Essential to the Hypothalamic Regulation of Human Reproduction Using a Human Disease Model: Adjusting to Life in the "-Omics" Era. Endocr Rev 2017. [PMID: 27454361 DOI: 10.1210/er.2015-1045.2016.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The neuroendocrine regulation of reproduction is an intricate process requiring the exquisite coordination of an assortment of cellular networks, all converging on the GnRH neurons. These neurons have a complex life history, migrating mainly from the olfactory placode into the hypothalamus, where GnRH is secreted and acts as the master regulator of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. Much of what we know about the biology of the GnRH neurons has been aided by discoveries made using the human disease model of isolated GnRH deficiency (IGD), a family of rare Mendelian disorders that share a common failure of secretion and/or action of GnRH causing hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Over the last 30 years, research groups around the world have been investigating the genetic basis of IGD using different strategies based on complex cases that harbor structural abnormalities or single pleiotropic genes, endogamous pedigrees, candidate gene approaches as well as pathway gene analyses. Although such traditional approaches, based on well-validated tools, have been critical to establish the field, new strategies, such as next-generation sequencing, are now providing speed and robustness, but also revealing a surprising number of variants in known IGD genes in both patients and healthy controls. Thus, before the field moves forward with new genetic tools and continues discovery efforts, we must reassess what we know about IGD genetics and prepare to hold our work to a different standard. The purpose of this review is to: 1) look back at the strategies used to discover the "known" genes implicated in the rare forms of IGD; 2) examine the strengths and weaknesses of the methodologies used to validate genetic variation; 3)substantiate the role of known genes in the pathophysiology of the disease; and 4) project forward as we embark upon a widening use of these new and powerful technologies for gene discovery. (Endocrine Reviews 36: 603-621, 2015).
Collapse
|
18
|
Lima Amato LG, Latronico AC, Gontijo Silveira LF. Molecular and Genetic Aspects of Congenital Isolated Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2017; 46:283-303. [PMID: 28476224 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecl.2017.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Congenital isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (IHH) is a clinically and genetically heterogenous disorder characterized by abnormal synthesis, secretion, or action of gonadotropin-releasing hormone, a key hypothalamic decapeptide that orchestrates the reproductive axis. Several modes of inheritance have been identified. A growing list of causative genes has been implicated in the molecular pathogenesis of syndromic and nonsyndromic IHH, largely contributing for better understanding the complex neuroendocrine control of reproduction. This article summarizes the great advances of molecular genetics of IHH and pointed up the heterogeneity and complexity of the genetic basis of this condition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Guimaraes Lima Amato
- Division of Endocrinology, Development Endocrinology Unit, Laboratory of Hormones and Molecular Genetics/LIM42, Clinical Hospital, Sao Paulo Medical School, Sao Paulo University, Av. Dr. Eneas de Carvalho Aguiar 255, 7 andar, sala 7037, Sao Paulo, SP 05403-000, Brazil
| | - Ana Claudia Latronico
- Division of Endocrinology, Development Endocrinology Unit, Laboratory of Hormones and Molecular Genetics/LIM42, Clinical Hospital, Sao Paulo Medical School, Sao Paulo University, Av. Dr. Eneas de Carvalho Aguiar 255, 7 andar, sala 7037, Sao Paulo, SP 05403-000, Brazil.
| | - Leticia Ferreira Gontijo Silveira
- Division of Endocrinology, Development Endocrinology Unit, Laboratory of Hormones and Molecular Genetics/LIM42, Clinical Hospital, Sao Paulo Medical School, Sao Paulo University, Av. Dr. Eneas de Carvalho Aguiar 255, 7 andar, sala 7037, Sao Paulo, SP 05403-000, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Stamou MI, Cox KH, Crowley WF. Withdrawn: Discovering Genes Essential to the Hypothalamic Regulation of Human Reproduction Using a Human Disease Model: Adjusting to Life in the "-Omics" Era. Endocr Rev 2016; 2016:4-22. [PMID: 27454361 PMCID: PMC6958992 DOI: 10.1210/er.2015-1045.2016.1.test] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The neuroendocrine regulation of reproduction is an intricate process requiring the exquisite coordination of an assortment of cellular networks, all converging on the GnRH neurons. These neurons have a complex life history, migrating mainly from the olfactory placode into the hypothalamus, where GnRH is secreted and acts as the master regulator of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. Much of what we know about the biology of the GnRH neurons has been aided by discoveries made using the human disease model of isolated GnRH deficiency (IGD), a family of rare Mendelian disorders that share a common failure of secretion and/or action of GnRH causing hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Over the last 30 years, research groups around the world have been investigating the genetic basis of IGD using different strategies based on complex cases that harbor structural abnormalities or single pleiotropic genes, endogamous pedigrees, candidate gene approaches as well as pathway gene analyses. Although such traditional approaches, based on well-validated tools, have been critical to establish the field, new strategies, such as next-generation sequencing, are now providing speed and robustness, but also revealing a surprising number of variants in known IGD genes in both patients and healthy controls. Thus, before the field moves forward with new genetic tools and continues discovery efforts, we must reassess what we know about IGD genetics and prepare to hold our work to a different standard. The purpose of this review is to: 1) look back at the strategies used to discover the "known" genes implicated in the rare forms of IGD; 2) examine the strengths and weaknesses of the methodologies used to validate genetic variation; 3)substantiate the role of known genes in the pathophysiology of the disease; and 4) project forward as we embark upon a widening use of these new and powerful technologies for gene discovery. (Endocrine Reviews 36: 603-621, 2015).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M I Stamou
- Harvard National Center for Translational Research in Reproduction and Infertility, Reproductive Endocrine Unit of the Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
| | - K H Cox
- Harvard National Center for Translational Research in Reproduction and Infertility, Reproductive Endocrine Unit of the Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
| | - William F Crowley
- Harvard National Center for Translational Research in Reproduction and Infertility, Reproductive Endocrine Unit of the Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Stamou MI, Cox KH, Crowley WF. Discovering Genes Essential to the Hypothalamic Regulation of Human Reproduction Using a Human Disease Model: Adjusting to Life in the "-Omics" Era. Endocr Rev 2015; 36:603-21. [PMID: 26394276 PMCID: PMC4702497 DOI: 10.1210/er.2015-1045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The neuroendocrine regulation of reproduction is an intricate process requiring the exquisite coordination of an assortment of cellular networks, all converging on the GnRH neurons. These neurons have a complex life history, migrating mainly from the olfactory placode into the hypothalamus, where GnRH is secreted and acts as the master regulator of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. Much of what we know about the biology of the GnRH neurons has been aided by discoveries made using the human disease model of isolated GnRH deficiency (IGD), a family of rare Mendelian disorders that share a common failure of secretion and/or action of GnRH causing hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Over the last 30 years, research groups around the world have been investigating the genetic basis of IGD using different strategies based on complex cases that harbor structural abnormalities or single pleiotropic genes, endogamous pedigrees, candidate gene approaches as well as pathway gene analyses. Although such traditional approaches, based on well-validated tools, have been critical to establish the field, new strategies, such as next-generation sequencing, are now providing speed and robustness, but also revealing a surprising number of variants in known IGD genes in both patients and healthy controls. Thus, before the field moves forward with new genetic tools and continues discovery efforts, we must reassess what we know about IGD genetics and prepare to hold our work to a different standard. The purpose of this review is to: 1) look back at the strategies used to discover the "known" genes implicated in the rare forms of IGD; 2) examine the strengths and weaknesses of the methodologies used to validate genetic variation; 3) substantiate the role of known genes in the pathophysiology of the disease; and 4) project forward as we embark upon a widening use of these new and powerful technologies for gene discovery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M I Stamou
- Harvard National Center for Translational Research in Reproduction and Infertility, Reproductive Endocrine Unit of the Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
| | - K H Cox
- Harvard National Center for Translational Research in Reproduction and Infertility, Reproductive Endocrine Unit of the Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
| | - William F Crowley
- Harvard National Center for Translational Research in Reproduction and Infertility, Reproductive Endocrine Unit of the Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Salian-Mehta S, Xu M, McKinsey TA, Tobet S, Wierman ME. Novel Interaction of Class IIb Histone Deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) with Class IIa HDAC9 Controls Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) Neuronal Cell Survival and Movement. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:14045-56. [PMID: 25873389 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.640482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The impact of histone deacetylases (HDACs) in the control of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) neuronal development is unknown. We identified an increase in many HDACs in GT1-7 (differentiated) compared with NLT (undifferentiated) GnRH neuronal cell lines. Increased HDAC9 mRNA and protein and specific deacetylase activity in GT1-7 cells suggested a functional role. Introduction of HDAC9 in NLT cells protected from serum withdrawal induced apoptosis and impaired basal neuronal cell movement. Conversely, silencing of endogenous HDAC9 in GT1-7 cells increased apoptosis and cell movement. Comparison of WT and mutant HDAC9 constructs demonstrated that the HDAC9 pro-survival effects required combined cytoplasmic and nuclear localization, whereas the effects on cell movement required a cytoplasmic site of action. Co-immunoprecipitation demonstrated a novel interaction of HDAC9 selectively with the Class IIb HDAC6. HDAC6 was also up-regulated at the mRNA and protein levels, and HDAC6 catalytic activity was significantly increased in GT1-7 compared with NLT cells. HDAC9 interacted with HDAC6 through its second catalytic domain. Silencing of HDAC6, HDAC9, or both, in GT1-7 cells augmented apoptosis compared with controls. HDAC6 and -9 had additive effects to promote cell survival via modulating the BAX/BCL2 pathway. Silencing of HDAC6 resulted in an activation of movement of GT1-7 cells with induction in acetylation of α-tubulin. Inhibition of HDAC6 and HDAC9 together resulted in an additive effect to increase cell movement but did not alter the acetylation of αtubulin. Together, these studies identify a novel interaction of Class IIa HDAC9 with Class IIb HDAC6 to modulate cell movement and survival in GnRH neurons.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mei Xu
- From the Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes and
| | - Timothy A McKinsey
- Division of Cardiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - Stuart Tobet
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523
| | - Margaret E Wierman
- From the Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes and Research Service Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Denver, Colorado 80220, and
| |
Collapse
|