1
|
Lockett J, Inder WJ, Clifton VL. The Glucocorticoid Receptor: Isoforms, Functions, and Contribution to Glucocorticoid Sensitivity. Endocr Rev 2024; 45:593-624. [PMID: 38551091 PMCID: PMC11244253 DOI: 10.1210/endrev/bnae008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids exert pleiotropic effects on all tissues to regulate cellular and metabolic homeostasis. Synthetic forms are used therapeutically in a wide range of conditions for their anti-inflammatory benefits, at the cost of dose and duration-dependent side effects. Significant variability occurs between tissues, disease states, and individuals with regard to both the beneficial and deleterious effects. The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is the site of action for these hormones and a vast body of work has been conducted understanding its function. Traditionally, it was thought that the anti-inflammatory benefits of glucocorticoids were mediated by transrepression of pro-inflammatory transcription factors, while the adverse metabolic effects resulted from direct transactivation. This canonical understanding of the GR function has been brought into question over the past 2 decades with advances in the resolution of scientific techniques, and the discovery of multiple isoforms of the receptor present in most tissues. Here we review the structure and function of the GR, the nature of the receptor isoforms, and the contribution of the receptor to glucocorticoid sensitivity, or resistance in health and disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jack Lockett
- Mater Research Institute, The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, QLD 4101, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia
- Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Metro South Health, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Warrick J Inder
- Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia
- Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Metro South Health, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Vicki L Clifton
- Mater Research Institute, The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, QLD 4101, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Deploey N, Van Moortel L, Rogatsky I, Peelman F, De Bosscher K. The Biologist's Guide to the Glucocorticoid Receptor's Structure. Cells 2023; 12:1636. [PMID: 37371105 PMCID: PMC10297449 DOI: 10.3390/cells12121636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The glucocorticoid receptor α (GRα) is a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily and functions as a glucocorticoid (GC)-responsive transcription factor. GR can halt inflammation and kill off cancer cells, thus explaining the widespread use of glucocorticoids in the clinic. However, side effects and therapy resistance limit GR's therapeutic potential, emphasizing the importance of resolving all of GR's context-specific action mechanisms. Fortunately, the understanding of GR structure, conformation, and stoichiometry in the different GR-controlled biological pathways is now gradually increasing. This information will be crucial to close knowledge gaps on GR function. In this review, we focus on the various domains and mechanisms of action of GR, all from a structural perspective.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nick Deploey
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (N.D.); (L.V.M.); (F.P.)
- Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Translational Nuclear Receptor Research (TNRR) Laboratory, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Laura Van Moortel
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (N.D.); (L.V.M.); (F.P.)
- Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Translational Nuclear Receptor Research (TNRR) Laboratory, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Inez Rogatsky
- Hospital for Special Surgery Research Institute, The David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Center, New York, NY 10021, USA;
- Graduate Program in Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Frank Peelman
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (N.D.); (L.V.M.); (F.P.)
- Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Karolien De Bosscher
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (N.D.); (L.V.M.); (F.P.)
- Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Translational Nuclear Receptor Research (TNRR) Laboratory, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Lengton R, Iyer AM, van der Valk ES, Hoogeveen EK, Meijer OC, van der Voorn B, van Rossum EFC. Variation in glucocorticoid sensitivity and the relation with obesity. Obes Rev 2022; 23:e13401. [PMID: 34837448 PMCID: PMC9285588 DOI: 10.1111/obr.13401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Increasing evidence points to a relation between increased glucocorticoid (GC) exposure and weight gain. In support, long-term cortisol measurements using hair analysis revealed that many individuals with obesity appear to have cortisol values in the high physiological range. The mechanisms behind this relationship need to be determined in order to develop targeted therapy to reach sustainable weight loss in these subgroups. The effect of GCs is not only determined by the plasma concentration of GCs but also by individual differences in GC sensitivity and the target tissue, which can be analyzed by functional GC assays. GC sensitivity is influenced by multiple genetic and acquired (e.g., disease-related) factors, including intracellular GC availability, hormone binding affinity, and expression levels of the GC receptors and their isoforms, as well as factors involved in the modulation of gene transcription. Interindividual differences in GC sensitivity also play a role in the response to exogenous GCs, with respect to both therapeutic and adverse effects. Accordingly, in this review, we summarize current knowledge on mechanisms that influence GC sensitivity and their relationships with obesity and discuss personalized treatment options targeting the GC receptor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robin Lengton
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Anand M Iyer
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Obesity Center CGG, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eline S van der Valk
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Obesity Center CGG, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ellen K Hoogeveen
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Onno C Meijer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Bibian van der Voorn
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Obesity Center CGG, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Elisabeth F C van Rossum
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Obesity Center CGG, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Homeostatic Regulation of Glucocorticoid Receptor Activity by Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1: From Physiology to Clinic. Cells 2021; 10:cells10123441. [PMID: 34943949 PMCID: PMC8699886 DOI: 10.3390/cells10123441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) represent a well-known class of lipophilic steroid hormones biosynthesised, with a circadian rhythm, by the adrenal glands in humans and by the inter-renal tissue in teleost fish (e.g., zebrafish). GCs play a key role in the regulation of numerous physiological processes, including inflammation, glucose, lipid, protein metabolism and stress response. This is achieved through binding to their cognate receptor, GR, which functions as a ligand-activated transcription factor. Due to their potent anti-inflammatory and immune-suppressive action, synthetic GCs are broadly used for treating pathological disorders that are very often linked to hypoxia (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory, allergic, infectious, and autoimmune diseases, among others) as well as to prevent graft rejections and against immune system malignancies. However, due to the presence of adverse effects and GC resistance their therapeutic benefits are limited in patients chronically treated with steroids. For this reason, understanding how to fine-tune GR activity is crucial in the search for novel therapeutic strategies aimed at reducing GC-related side effects and effectively restoring homeostasis. Recent research has uncovered novel mechanisms that inhibit GR function, thereby causing glucocorticoid resistance, and has produced some surprising new findings. In this review we analyse these mechanisms and focus on the crosstalk between GR and HIF signalling. Indeed, its comprehension may provide new routes to develop novel therapeutic targets for effectively treating immune and inflammatory response and to simultaneously facilitate the development of innovative GCs with a better benefits-risk ratio.
Collapse
|
5
|
Motavalli R, Majidi T, Pourlak T, Abediazar S, Shoja MM, Zununi Vahed S, Etemadi J. The clinical significance of the glucocorticoid receptors: Genetics and epigenetics. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2021; 213:105952. [PMID: 34274458 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 07/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The impacts of glucocorticoids (GCs) are mainly mediated by a nuclear receptor (GR) existing in almost every tissue. The GR regulates a wide range of physiological functions, including inflammation, cell metabolism, and differentiation playing a major role in cellular responses to GCs and stress. Therefore, the dysregulation or disruption of GR can cause deficiencies in the adaptation to stress and the preservation of homeostasis. The number of GR polymorphisms associated with different diseases has been mounting per year. Tackling these clinical complications obliges a comprehensive understanding of the molecular network action of GCs at the level of the GR structure and its signaling pathways. Beyond genetic variation in the GR gene, epigenetic changes can enhance our understanding of causal factors involved in the development of diseases and identifying biomarkers. In this review, we highlight the relationships of GC receptor gene polymorphisms and epigenetics with different diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roza Motavalli
- Kidney Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Taraneh Majidi
- Kidney Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Tala Pourlak
- Department of Pathology, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Sima Abediazar
- Kidney Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mohammadali M Shoja
- Clinical Academy of Teaching and Learning, Ross University School of Medicine, Miramar, FL, USA
| | | | - Jalal Etemadi
- Kidney Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Martins CS, de Castro M. Generalized and tissue specific glucocorticoid resistance. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2021; 530:111277. [PMID: 33864884 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2021.111277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) are steroid hormones that influence several physiologic functions and are among the most frequently prescribed drugs worldwide. Resistance to GCs has been observed in the context of the familial generalized GC resistance (Chrousos' syndrome) or tissue specific GC resistance in chronic inflammatory states. In this review, we have summarized the major factors that influence individual glucocorticoid sensitivity/resistance. The fine-tuning of GC action is determined in a tissue-specific fashion that includes the combination of different GC receptor promoters, translation initiation sites, splice isoforms, interacting proteins, post-translational modifications, and alternative mechanisms of signal transduction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa Silva Martins
- Department of Internal Medicine - Ribeirao Preto Medical School - University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil; School of Medicine, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
| | - Margaret de Castro
- Department of Internal Medicine - Ribeirao Preto Medical School - University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Čikoš Š, Babeľová J, Špirková A, Burkuš J, Kovaříková V, Šefčíková Z, Fabian D, Koppel J. Glucocorticoid receptor isoforms and effects of glucocorticoids in ovulated mouse oocytes and preimplantation embryos†. Biol Reprod 2020; 100:351-364. [PMID: 30188986 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioy196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Revised: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
To investigate possible involvement of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in mediating effects of maternal stress or therapeutically administered glucocorticoids on early embryo, we analyzed the expression of GR subtypes in ovulated mouse oocytes and preimplantation embryos. RT-PCR analysis results showed that GRα and GRγ transcripts are relatively highly expressed in mouse oocytes, and both transcripts are present at lower amounts in preimplantation embryos. We also detected low expression of two other splice variants, GRβ and a transcript orthologous to the human GR-P subtype, mainly at the blastocyst stage. Using western blot analysis, we detected several GR protein bands that differed in size between oocytes and preimplantation embryos. To compare the effects of corticosterone (a major endogenous glucocorticoid in rodents) and dexamethasone (a synthetic glucocorticoid) on early embryos, we cultured mouse preimplantation embryos in the presence of these glucocorticoids. Corticosterone showed a strong inhibitory effect on embryo development (starting from a 50 μM concentration), without a significant influence on apoptosis incidence. On the other hand, dexamethasone induced apoptosis in early embryo cells (starting from a 1.5 μM concentration), and its effect on embryo development was less detrimental than that found with the same dose of corticosterone. In summary, our results showed that different GR subtypes are expressed in ovulated mouse oocytes and preimplantation embryos and that the composition of GR subtypes changes during early embryo development. Moreover, we found significant differences in the effects of the two glucocorticoids on early embryo development, which might be associated with activation of different GR subtypes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Štefan Čikoš
- Institute of Animal Physiology, Centre of Biosciences of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Šoltésovej, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Janka Babeľová
- Institute of Animal Physiology, Centre of Biosciences of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Šoltésovej, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Alexandra Špirková
- Institute of Animal Physiology, Centre of Biosciences of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Šoltésovej, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Ján Burkuš
- Institute of Animal Physiology, Centre of Biosciences of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Šoltésovej, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Veronika Kovaříková
- Institute of Animal Physiology, Centre of Biosciences of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Šoltésovej, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Zuzana Šefčíková
- Institute of Animal Physiology, Centre of Biosciences of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Šoltésovej, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Dušan Fabian
- Institute of Animal Physiology, Centre of Biosciences of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Šoltésovej, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Juraj Koppel
- Institute of Animal Physiology, Centre of Biosciences of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Šoltésovej, Košice, Slovakia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Xue R, Meng Q. The Management of Glucocorticoid Therapy in Liver Failure. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2490. [PMID: 31749799 PMCID: PMC6843006 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver failure is characterized by rapid progression and high mortality. Excessive systemic inflammation is considered as the trigger of liver failure. Glucocorticoids (GCs) can rapidly suppress excessive inflammatory reactions and immune response. GCs have been applied in the treatment of liver failure since the 1970s. However, until now, the use of GCs in the treatment of liver failure has been somewhat unclear and controversial. New research regarding the molecular mechanisms of GCs may explain the controversial actions of GCs in liver failure. More results should be confirmed in a larger randomized clinical trial; this can aid the discovery of better definitions in terms of treatment schedules according to different clinical settings. Meanwhile, the timing and dosing of GCs in the treatment of liver failure should also be explored.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ran Xue
- Department of Critical Care Medicine of Liver Disease, Beijing You-An Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Department of Gastrointestinal Oncology, Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing, China
| | - Qinghua Meng
- Department of Critical Care Medicine of Liver Disease, Beijing You-An Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Monteiro LLS, Franco OL, Alencar SA, Porto WF. Deciphering the structural basis for glucocorticoid resistance caused by missense mutations in the ligand binding domain of glucocorticoid receptor. J Mol Graph Model 2019; 92:216-226. [PMID: 31401440 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2019.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The glucocorticoid resistance hereditary condition may emerge from the occurrence of point mutations in the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), which could impair its functionality. Because the main feature of such pathology is the resistance of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to the hormone cortisol, we used the GR ligand binding domain three-dimensional structure to perform computational analysis for eight variants known to cause this clinical condition (I559 N, V571A, D641V, G679S, F737L, I747 M, L753F and L773P), aiming to understand, on the atom scale, how they cause glucocorticoid resistance. We observed that the mutations generated a reduced affinity to cortisol and they alter some loop conformations, which could be a consequence from changes in protein motion, which in turn could result from the reduced stability of mutant GR structures. Therefore, the analyzed mutations compromise the GR ligand binding domain structure and cortisol binding, which could characterize the glucocorticoid resistance phenotype.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L L S Monteiro
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Genômicas e Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - O L Franco
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Genômicas e Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil; Centro de Análises Proteômicas e Bioquímicas, Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Genômicas e Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil; S-Inova Biotech, Pós-Graduação Em Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Dom Bosco, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
| | - S A Alencar
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Genômicas e Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - W F Porto
- Porto Reports, Brasília, DF, Brazil; S-Inova Biotech, Pós-Graduação Em Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Dom Bosco, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Vitellius G, Trabado S, Bouligand J, Delemer B, Lombès M. Pathophysiology of Glucocorticoid Signaling. ANNALES D'ENDOCRINOLOGIE 2018; 79:98-106. [PMID: 29685454 DOI: 10.1016/j.ando.2018.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GC), such as cortisol or dexamethasone, control various physiological functions, notably those involved in development, metabolism, inflammatory processes and stress, and exert most of their effects upon binding to the glucocorticoid receptor (GR, encoded by NR3C1 gene). GC signaling follows several consecutive steps leading to target gene transactivation, including ligand binding, nuclear translocation of ligand-activated GR complexes, DNA binding, coactivator interaction and recruitment of functional transcriptional machinery. Any step may be impaired and may account for altered GC signaling. Partial or generalized glucocorticoid resistance syndrome may result in a reduced level of functional GR, a decreased hormone affinity and binding, a defect in nuclear GR translocation, a decrease or lack of DNA binding and/or post-transcriptional GR modifications. To date, 26 loss-of-function NR3C1 mutations have been reported in the context of hypertension, hirsutism, adrenal hyperplasia or metabolic disorders. These clinical signs are generally associated with biological features including hypercortisolism without negative regulatory feedback loop on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Patients had often low plasma aldosterone and renin levels despite hypertension. Only one GR gain-of-function mutation has been described associating Cushing's syndrome phenotype with normal urinary-free cortisol. Some GR polymorphisms (ER22/23EK, GR-9β) have been linked to glucocorticoid resistance and a healthier metabolic profile whereas some others seemed to be associated with GC hypersensitivity (N363S, BclI), increasing cardiovascular risk (diabetes type 2, visceral obesity). This review focuses on the earlier findings on the pathophysiology of GR signaling and presents criteria facilitating identification of novel NR3C1 mutations in selected patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Géraldine Vitellius
- Inserm Umr_S U1185, faculté de médecine Paris-Sud, université Paris-Sud, université Paris-Saclay, 94276 Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France; Service d'endocrinologie diabète nutrition, CHU de Reims, hôpital Robert-Debré, 51100, France
| | - Séverine Trabado
- Inserm Umr_S U1185, faculté de médecine Paris-Sud, université Paris-Sud, université Paris-Saclay, 94276 Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France; Service de génétique moléculaire, pharmacogénétique et hormonologie, CHU de Bicêtre, hôpitaux universitaires Paris-Sud, AH-HP, 94275, France
| | - Jérôme Bouligand
- Inserm Umr_S U1185, faculté de médecine Paris-Sud, université Paris-Sud, université Paris-Saclay, 94276 Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France; Service de génétique moléculaire, pharmacogénétique et hormonologie, CHU de Bicêtre, hôpitaux universitaires Paris-Sud, AH-HP, 94275, France
| | - Brigitte Delemer
- Service d'endocrinologie diabète nutrition, CHU de Reims, hôpital Robert-Debré, 51100, France
| | - Marc Lombès
- Inserm Umr_S U1185, faculté de médecine Paris-Sud, université Paris-Sud, université Paris-Saclay, 94276 Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France; Service d'endocrinologie et des maladies de la reproduction, hôpitaux universitaires Paris-Sud, CHU Bicêtre, AH-HP, 94275 Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Medeiros AC, Soares CS, Coelho PO, Vieira NA, Baqui MMA, Teixeira FR, Gomes MD. DNA damage response signaling does not trigger redistribution of SAMHD1 to nuclear foci. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2018; 499:790-796. [PMID: 29614270 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2018.03.225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
SAMHD1 (Sterile alpha motif and histidine-aspartic acid (HD) domain containing protein 1) is a deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) triphosphohydrolase (dNTPase) that restricts viral replication in infected cells. This protein is also involved in DNA repair by assisting in DNA end resection by homologous recombination (HR) after DNA double-strand break (DSB) induction with camptothecin (CPT) or etoposide (ETO). We showed that a monoclonal anti-SAMHD1 antibody produced against the full-length protein detected an unspecific 50 kDa protein that colocalized with dot-like structures after CPT treatment in HeLa cells. In contrast, a polyclonal anti-SAMHD1 antibody raised against the N-terminus of this protein specifically detected SAMHD1, as shown in Jurkat, HAP1KO and HEK293T SAMHD1-siRNA cell lysates compared with their respective controls. Our findings showed that SAMHD1 is not localized in dot-like structures under DSB induction in HeLa cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Carla Medeiros
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Claudia S Soares
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Priscila O Coelho
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Nichelle A Vieira
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Munira M A Baqui
- Department of Cell Biology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Felipe R Teixeira
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil; Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, and Department of Genetics and Evolution, Federal University of Sao Carlos, Brazil.
| | - Marcelo D Gomes
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Dong H, Carlton ME, Lerner A, Epstein PM. Effect of cAMP signaling on expression of glucocorticoid receptor, Bim and Bad in glucocorticoid-sensitive and resistant leukemic and multiple myeloma cells. Front Pharmacol 2015; 6:230. [PMID: 26528184 PMCID: PMC4602131 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2015.00230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Stimulation of cAMP signaling induces apoptosis in glucocorticoid-sensitive and resistant CEM leukemic and MM.1 multiple myeloma cell lines, and this effect is enhanced by dexamethasone in both glucocorticoid-sensitive cell types and in glucocorticoid-resistant CEM cells. Expression of the mRNA for the glucocorticoid receptor alpha (GR) promoters 1A3, 1B and 1C, expression of mRNA and protein for GR, and the BH3-only proapoptotic proteins, Bim and Bad, and the phosphorylation state of Bad were examined following stimulation of the cAMP and glucocorticoid signaling pathways. Expression levels of GR promoters were increased by cAMP and glucocorticoid signaling, but GR protein expression was little changed in CEM and decreased in MM.1 cells. Stimulation of these two signaling pathways induced Bim in CEM cells, induced Bad in MM.1 cells, and activated Bad, as indicated by its dephosphorylation on ser112, in both cell types. This study shows that leukemic and multiple myeloma cells, including those resistant to glucocorticoids, can be induced to undergo apoptosis by stimulating the cAMP signaling pathway, with enhancement by glucocorticoids, and the mechanism by which this occurs may be related to changes in Bim and Bad expression, and in all cases, to activation of Bad.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hongli Dong
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington CT, USA
| | - Michael E Carlton
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington CT, USA
| | - Adam Lerner
- Section of Hematology and Oncology, Evans Department of Medicine, Boston Medical Center, Boston MA, USA
| | - Paul M Epstein
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington CT, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Oakley RH, Cidlowski JA. Glucocorticoid signaling in the heart: A cardiomyocyte perspective. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2015; 153:27-34. [PMID: 25804222 PMCID: PMC4568128 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Revised: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 03/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Heart failure is one of the leading causes of death in the Western world. Glucocorticoids are primary stress hormones that regulate a vast array of biological processes, and synthetic derivatives of these steroids have been mainstays in the clinic for the last half century. Abnormal levels of glucocorticoids are known to negatively impact the cardiovascular system; however, surprisingly little is known about the direct role of glucocorticoid signaling in the heart. The actions of glucocorticoids are mediated classically by the glucocorticoid receptor (GR). In certain cells, such as cardiomyocytes, glucocorticoid occupancy and activation of the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) may also contribute to the observed response. Recently, there has been a surge of reports investigating the in vivo function of glucocorticoid signaling in the heart using transgenic mice that specifically target GR or MR in cardiomyocytes. Results from these studies suggest that GR signaling in cardiomyocytes is critical for the normal development and function of the heart. In contrast, MR signaling in cardiomyocytes participates in the development and progression of cardiac disease. In the following review, we discuss these genetic mouse models and the new insights they are providing into the direct role cardiomyocyte glucocorticoid signaling plays in heart physiology and pathophysiology. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Steroid Perspectives'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert H Oakley
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, 111 TW Alexander Drive, P.O. Box 12233, MD F3-07, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA.
| | - John A Cidlowski
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, 111 TW Alexander Drive, P.O. Box 12233, MD F3-07, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Rimoldi S, Lasagna E, Sarti FM, Marelli SP, Cozzi MC, Bernardini G, Terova G. Expression profile of six stress-related genes and productive performances of fast and slow growing broiler strains reared under heat stress conditions. Meta Gene 2015; 6:17-25. [PMID: 26380816 PMCID: PMC4556841 DOI: 10.1016/j.mgene.2015.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Revised: 08/16/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
High temperature is one of the prominent environmental factors causing economic losses to the poultry industry as it negatively affects growth and production performance in broiler chickens. We used One Step TaqMan real time RT-PCR (reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction) technology to study the effects of chronic heat stress on the expression of genes codifying for the antioxidative enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT), as well as for heat shock protein (HSP) 70, HSP90, glucocorticoid receptor (NR3C1), and caspase 6 (CASP6) in the liver of two different broiler genetic strains: Red JA Cou Nu Hubbard (CN) and Ross 508 Aviagen (RO). CN is a naked neck slow growing broiler intended for the free range and/or organic markets, whereas RO is selected for fast growing. We also analysed the effect of chronic heat stress on productive performances, and plasma corticosterone levels as well as the association between transcriptomic response and specific SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) in each genetic strain of broiler chickens. RO and CN broilers, 4 weeks of age, were maintained for 4 weeks at either 34 °C or 22 °C. The results demonstrated that there was a genotype and a temperature main effect on the broilers' growth from the 4th to the 8th week of age, but the interaction effect between genotype and temperature resulted not statistically significant. By considering the genotype effect, fast growing broilers (RO) grew more than the slow growing ones (CN), whereas by considering the temperature effect, broilers in unheated conditions grew more than the heat stressed ones. Corticosterone levels increased significantly in the blood of heat stressed broilers, due to the activation of the HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis). Carcass yield at slaughter was of similar values in the 4 cohorts (genotype/temperature combinations or treatment groups), ranging from 86.5 to 88.6%, whereas carcass weight was negatively influenced by heat stress in both broiler strains. Heat stress affected gene expression by downregulating CASP6 and upregulating CAT transcript levels. HSPs, SOD and NR3C1 mRNA levels remained unaffected by heat stress. The differences found in the mRNA copies of CASP6 gene could be partly explained by SNPs.
Collapse
Key Words
- Antioxidant enzymes
- Broiler
- CASP6, caspase 6
- CAT, catalase
- CN, Red JA Cou Nu Hubbard
- CORT, corticosterone
- Corticosterone
- Ct, cycle threshold
- GPX, glutathione peroxidase
- Gene expression
- HPA, hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis
- HSP, heat shock protein
- Heat stress
- NR3C1, glucocorticoid receptor: GR or nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group c, member 1
- PCR, polymerase chain reaction
- RO, Ross 508 Aviagen
- RT-PCR, reverse transcription PCR
- Real time PCR
- SNP, single nucleotide polymorphism
- SOD, superoxide dismutase
- cDNA, DNA complementary to RNA
- kDa, kilodalton(s)
- rTH, reverse transcriptase
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simona Rimoldi
- University of Insubria, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, Varese, Italy
| | - Emiliano Lasagna
- University of Perugia, Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Perugia, Italy
| | - Francesca Maria Sarti
- University of Perugia, Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Perugia, Italy
| | - Stefano Paolo Marelli
- University of Milan, Department of Veterinary Science and Public Health, Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Cristina Cozzi
- University of Milan,
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, Milan, Italy
| | - Giovanni Bernardini
- University of Insubria, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, Varese, Italy ; Inter-University Centre for Research in Protein Biotechnologies "The Protein Factory" - Polytechnic University of Milan and University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Genciana Terova
- University of Insubria, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, Varese, Italy ; Inter-University Centre for Research in Protein Biotechnologies "The Protein Factory" - Polytechnic University of Milan and University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Cruz-Topete D, Cidlowski JA. One hormone, two actions: anti- and pro-inflammatory effects of glucocorticoids. Neuroimmunomodulation 2015; 22:20-32. [PMID: 25227506 PMCID: PMC4243162 DOI: 10.1159/000362724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 277] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucocorticoids are essential steroid hormones secreted from the adrenal gland in response to stress. Since their discovery in the 1940s, glucocorticoids have been widely prescribed to treat inflammatory disorders and hematological cancers. In the traditional view, glucocorticoids are regarded as anti-inflammatory molecules; however, emerging evidence suggests that glucocorticoid actions are more complex than previously anticipated. The anti-inflammatory activity of glucocorticoids is attributed to the repression of pro-inflammatory genes through signal transduction by their steroid receptor, the glucocorticoid receptor (GR). The mechanisms modulating the pro-inflammatory effects of glucocorticoids are not well understood. In this review, we discuss recent findings that provide insights into the mechanism by which GR signaling can play a dual role in the regulation of the immune response. We hypothesize that these apparently opposite processes are working together to prepare the immune system to respond to a stressor (pro-inflammatory effects) and subsequently restore homeostasis (anti-inflammatory effects). Finally, we propose that determining the mechanisms which underlie the tissue-specific effects of glucocorticoids will provide an excellent tool to develop more efficient and selective glucocorticoid therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diana Cruz-Topete
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, N.C., USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Toneatto J, Charó NL, Naselli A, Muñoz-Bernart M, Lombardi A, Piwien-Pilipuk G. Corticosteroid Receptors, Their Chaperones and Cochaperones: How Do They Modulate Adipogenesis? NUCLEAR RECEPTOR RESEARCH 2014. [DOI: 10.11131/2014/101092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
|
17
|
Liberman AC, Antunica-Noguerol M, Arzt E. Modulation of the Glucocorticoid Receptor Activity by Post-Translational Modifications. NUCLEAR RECEPTOR RESEARCH 2014. [DOI: 10.11131/2014/101086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Clara Liberman
- Instituto de Investigación en Biomedicina de Buenos Aires - CONICET - Partner Institute of the Max Planck Society
| | - María Antunica-Noguerol
- Instituto de Investigación en Biomedicina de Buenos Aires - CONICET - Partner Institute of the Max Planck Society
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires
| | - Eduardo Arzt
- Instituto de Investigación en Biomedicina de Buenos Aires - CONICET - Partner Institute of the Max Planck Society
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Vandevyver S, Dejager L, Libert C. Comprehensive overview of the structure and regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor. Endocr Rev 2014; 35:671-93. [PMID: 24937701 DOI: 10.1210/er.2014-1010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids are among the most prescribed drugs worldwide for the treatment of numerous immune and inflammatory disorders. They exert their actions by binding to the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily. There are several GR isoforms resulting from alternative RNA splicing and translation initiation of the GR transcript. Additionally, these isoforms are all subject to several transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational modifications, all of which affect the protein's stability and/or function. In this review, we summarize recent knowledge on the distinct GR isoforms and the processes that generate them. We also review the importance of all known transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational modifications, including the regulation of GR by microRNAs. Moreover, we discuss the crucial role of the putative GR-bound DNA sequence as an allosteric ligand influencing GR structure and activity. Finally, we describe how the differential composition and distinct regulation at multiple levels of different GR species could account for the wide and diverse effects of glucocorticoids.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Vandevyver
- Inflammation Research Center (S.V., L.D., C.L.), Flanders Institute for Biotechnology, B9052 Ghent, Belgium; and Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology (S.V., L.D., C.L.), Ghent University, B9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Panagiotakopoulos L, Neigh GN. Development of the HPA axis: where and when do sex differences manifest? Front Neuroendocrinol 2014; 35:285-302. [PMID: 24631756 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2013] [Revised: 02/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Sex differences in the response to stress contribute to sex differences in somatic, neurological, and psychiatric diseases. Despite a growing literature on the mechanisms that mediate sex differences in the stress response, the ontogeny of these differences has not been comprehensively reviewed. This review focuses on the development of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, a key component of the body's response to stress, and examines the critical points of divergence during development between males and females. Insight gained from animal models and clinical studies are presented to fully illustrate the current state of knowledge regarding sex differences in response to stress over development. An appreciation for the developmental timelines of the components of the HPA axis will provide a foundation for future areas of study by highlighting both what is known and calling attention to areas in which sex differences in the development of the HPA axis have been understudied.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Gretchen N Neigh
- Emory University, Department of Physiology, United States; Emory University, Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Quax RA, Manenschijn L, Koper JW, Hazes JM, Lamberts SWJ, van Rossum EFC, Feelders RA. Glucocorticoid sensitivity in health and disease. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2013; 9:670-86. [PMID: 24080732 DOI: 10.1038/nrendo.2013.183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids regulate many physiological processes and have an essential role in the systemic response to stress. For example, gene transcription is modulated by the glucocorticoid-glucocorticoid receptor complex via several mechanisms. The ultimate biologic responses to glucocorticoids are determined by not only the concentration of glucocorticoids but also the differences between individuals in glucocorticoid sensitivity, which is influenced by multiple factors. Differences in sensitivity to glucocorticoids in healthy individuals are partly genetically determined by functional polymorphisms of the gene that encodes the glucocorticoid receptor. Hereditary syndromes have also been identified that are associated with increased and decreased sensitivity to glucocorticoids. As a result of their anti-inflammatory properties, glucocorticoids are widely used in the treatment of allergic, inflammatory and haematological disorders. The variety in clinical responses to treatment with glucocorticoids reflects the considerable variation in glucocorticoid sensitivity between individuals. In immune-mediated disorders, proinflammatory cytokines can induce localized resistance to glucocorticoids via several mechanisms. Individual differences in how tissues respond to glucocorticoids might also be involved in the predisposition for and pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome and mood disorders. In this Review, we summarize the mechanisms that influence glucocorticoid sensitivity in health and disease and discuss possible strategies to modulate glucocorticoid responsiveness.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rogier A Quax
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Erasmus Medical Center, 's-Gravendijkwal 230, 3015 CE Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Reyer H, Ponsuksili S, Wimmers K, Murani E. Association of N-terminal domain polymorphisms of the porcine glucocorticoid receptor with carcass composition and meat quality traits. Anim Genet 2013; 45:125-9. [DOI: 10.1111/age.12083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Henry Reyer
- Institute for Genome Biology; Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology; Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2 18196 Dummerstorf Germany
| | - Siriluck Ponsuksili
- Research Group Functional Genome Analysis; Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology; Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2 18196 Dummerstorf Germany
| | - Klaus Wimmers
- Institute for Genome Biology; Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology; Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2 18196 Dummerstorf Germany
| | - Eduard Murani
- Institute for Genome Biology; Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology; Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2 18196 Dummerstorf Germany
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Dvorak Z, Pavek P. Regulation of drug-metabolizing cytochrome P450 enzymes by glucocorticoids. Drug Metab Rev 2011; 42:621-35. [PMID: 20482443 DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2010.484462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The regulation of drug-metabolizing cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP) is a complex process involving multiple mechanisms. Among them, transcriptional regulation through ligand-activated nuclear receptors is the crucial mechanism involved in hormone-controlled and xenobiotic-induced expression of drug-metabolizing CYPs. In this article, we focus, in detail, on the role of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in the transcriptional regulation of human drug-metabolizing CYP enzymes and the mechanisms of the regulation. There are at least three distinct transcriptional mechanisms by which GR controls the expression of CYPs: 1) direct binding of GR to a specific gene-promoter sequence called the glucocorticoid responsive element (GRE); 2) indirect binding of GR in the form of a multiprotein complex to gene promoters without a direct contact between GR and promoter DNA; and 3) up- or downregulation of other CYP transcriptional regulators or nuclear receptors (i.e., transcriptional regulatory cross-talk). However, due to the general effect of glucocorticoids on numerous cellular pathways and functions, the net transcriptional effect of glucocorticoids on drug-metabolizing enzymes is usually a combination of several mechanisms. Since synthetic glucocorticoids are widely prescribed in human pharmacotherapy for the treatment of many diseases, comprehensive understanding of the transcriptional regulation of drug-metabolizing CYPs via GR with respect to glucocorticoid therapy or glucocorticoid hormonal status will aid in the development of efficient individualized pharmacotherapy without drug-drug interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zdenek Dvorak
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
| | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Oakley RH, Cidlowski JA. Cellular processing of the glucocorticoid receptor gene and protein: new mechanisms for generating tissue-specific actions of glucocorticoids. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:3177-84. [PMID: 21149445 PMCID: PMC3030321 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.r110.179325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 255] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucocorticoids regulate numerous physiological processes and are mainstays in the treatment of inflammation, autoimmune disease, and cancer. The traditional view that glucocorticoids act through a single glucocorticoid receptor (GR) protein has changed in recent years with the discovery of a large cohort of receptor subtypes arising from alternative processing of the GR gene. These isoforms differ in their expression, gene regulatory, and functional profiles. Post-translational modification of these proteins further expands GR diversity. Here, we discuss the origin and molecular properties of the GR isoforms and their contribution to the sensitivity and specificity of the glucocorticoid response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert H. Oakley
- From the Laboratory of Signal Transduction, NIEHS, National Institutes of Heath, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709
| | - John A. Cidlowski
- From the Laboratory of Signal Transduction, NIEHS, National Institutes of Heath, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Abstract
Several signals, such as hormones and signaling molecules, have been identified as important regulators of Leydig cell differentiation and function. Conveying these signals and translating them into a genomic response to ensure an accurate physiological output requires the action of a network of transcription factors, including those belonging to the nuclear receptor superfamily. Nuclear receptors regulate expression of genes important for growth, differentiation, development, and homeostasis. Several nuclear receptors, such as steroid hormone receptors (NR3A and NR3C families), are activated upon ligand binding, whereas others, including members of the NR2C, NR2F, and NR4A families, either do not require a ligand or ligands have yet to be identified. Several nuclear receptors (e.g., NR2F2 and NR5A1) have been shown to play essential roles in Leydig cells, whereas for others (e.g., NR2B1 and NR4A1), the assessment of their function has been precluded by the early embryonic lethality associated with null mice or by redundancy mechanisms by other family members. This is now being overcome with the generation of novel approaches, including Leydig cell-specific knockout models. This review provides an overview of the nuclear receptor family of transcription factors as they relate to Leydig cell gene expression and function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luc J Martin
- Reproduction, Perinatal, and Child Health, Research Centre du Centre Universitaire de Québec, Québec City, Québec, Canada.
| | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Manenschijn L, van den Akker ELT, Lamberts SWJ, van Rossum EFC. Clinical features associated with glucocorticoid receptor polymorphisms. An overview. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009; 1179:179-98. [PMID: 19906240 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05013.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is crucial for the effects of glucocorticoids (GCs). Several polymorphisms of the GR are associated with altered sensitivity to GCs. For the ER22/23EK polymorphism, a relative GC resistance has been demonstrated. In vivo, this was suggested by a smaller response to a dexamethasone suppression test (DST), whereas in vitro experiments showed a diminished transactivational activity. The associated features of ER22/23EK carriers consist of favorable metabolic and body compositional conditions. In elderly subjects this polymorphism was associated with longevity and decreased risk of dementia. Interestingly, recent studies also showed an increased risk of major depression. In contrast, the N363S polymorphism was reported to be associated with an enhanced sensitivity to GCs, as was demonstrated by a DST. This polymorphism has also been associated with increased body mass index (BMI) and LDL-cholesterol levels, as well as increased risk of cardiovascular disease. However, additional studies yielded conflicting results, showing no associations with being overweight. The BclI polymorphism is also associated with increased GC sensitivity. In addition, associations with increased abdominal fat mass, Crohn's disease and, remarkably, major depression have been reported. Another GR polymorphism, located in exon 9beta, is associated with increased expression and stabilization of the dominant negative splice variant GR-beta. Carriers of this polymorphism displayed a relative GC resistance in vitro as evidenced by diminished transrepressional activity, which is important for the immune system and inflammation. Associations have been found with increased inflammatory parameters, cardiovascular disease, and rheumatoid arthritis. In this article, studies concerning these clinically relevant GR variants are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Manenschijn
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Hägg P, Hurskainen T, Palatsi R, Ilves M, Oikarinen A. Increased expression of glucocorticoid receptor β in lymphocytes of patients with severe atopic dermatitis unresponsive to topical corticosteroid. Br J Dermatol 2009; 162:318-24. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2009.09518.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
27
|
Abstract
Glucocorticoid Receptor in Health and DiseaseGlucocorticoid hormones are essential for life, have a vital place in the treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases and are increasingly implicated in the pathogenesis of a number of common disorders. Their action is mediated by an intracellular receptor protein, the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), functioning as a ligand-inducible transcription factor. Multiple synthetic glucocorticoids are used as potent antiinflammatory and immunosuppressive agents, but their therapeutic usefulness is limited by a wide range and severity of side-effects. One of the most important pharmaceutical goals has been to design steroidal and non-steroidal GR ligands with profound therapeutic efficacy and reduced unwanted effects. The therapeutic benefit of glucocorticoid agonists is frequently compromised by resistance to glucocorticoids, which may depend on: access of the hormones to target cells, steroid metabolism, expression level and isoform composition of the GR protein, mutations and polymorphisms in the GR gene and association of the receptor with chaperone proteins. The major breakthrough into the critical role of glucocorticoid signaling in the maintenance of homeostasis and pathogenesis of diseases, as well as into the molecular mechanisms underlying the therapeutic usefulness of antiinflammatory drugs acting through the GR is expected to result from the current progress in large-scale gene expression profiling technologies and computational biology.
Collapse
|
28
|
Copland JA, Sheffield-Moore M, Koldzic-Zivanovic N, Gentry S, Lamprou G, Tzortzatou-Stathopoulou F, Zoumpourlis V, Urban RJ, Vlahopoulos SA. Sex steroid receptors in skeletal differentiation and epithelial neoplasia: is tissue-specific intervention possible? Bioessays 2009; 31:629-41. [DOI: 10.1002/bies.200800138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
|
29
|
Bertalan R, Patócs A, Boyle B, Rigó J, Rácz K. The protective effect of the ER22/23EK polymorphism against an excessive weight gain during pregnancy. Gynecol Endocrinol 2009; 25:379-82. [PMID: 19241242 DOI: 10.1080/09513590902730762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been shown that women who gained an excessive weight during pregnancy had an increase in long-term BMI compared with those without an excessive weight gain. Several studies have demonstrated that some polymorphisms of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) gene may influence body composition and metabolic parameters. In the present study, we wanted to explore whether any association could exist between the BclI, N363S and ER22/23EK polymorphisms of the GR gene and the weight gain during pregnancy. We found that the allelic frequencies of the BclI, N363S and ER22/23EK polymorphisms in 300 women with uncomplicated pregnancies were similar to those measured in healthy Hungarian population. None of the three polymorphisms associated with body weight or BMI at the 1st trimester of pregnancy or before delivery. However, a significantly lower weight gain (p = 0.044) and consequently lower increase of BMI during pregnancy (p = 0.044) was observed in heterozygous carriers of the ER22/23EK polymorphism. These results support a protective role of the ER22/23EK polymorphism against an excessive weight gain and excessive increase of BMI during uncomplicated pregnancy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rita Bertalan
- 2nd Department of Medicine, Semmelweis University, 46 Szentkiralyi, 1088 Budapest, Hungary.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Layer and broiler chicks exhibit similar hypothalamic expression of orexigenic neuropeptides but distinct expression of genes related to energy homeostasis and obesity. Brain Res 2009; 1273:18-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.03.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2008] [Revised: 03/12/2009] [Accepted: 03/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|
31
|
Schewitz LP, Lee RWJ, Dayan CM, Dick AD. Glucocorticoids and the emerging importance of T cell subsets in steroid refractory diseases. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2009; 31:1-22. [PMID: 19238755 DOI: 10.1080/08923970802334848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids remain the first-line treatment for a range of autoimmune and allergic diseases. However, 30% of patients fail to achieve disease control at tolerable systemic doses and continue to have an increased immune response with poor clinical outcome. This steroid refractory (SR) phenotype has previously been attributed to enhanced expression of inactive glucocorticoid receptor isoforms and cytokine-mediated suppression of glucocorticoid (GC) signaling, in particular by interleukin-2. These mechanisms are discussed, with emphasis on recent evidence for the role of the CD4(+)CD25(int) and GC-induced T regulatory cell subsets in perpetrating SR disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren P Schewitz
- Department of Clinical Science at South Bristol, University of Bristol, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Gross KL, Lu NZ, Cidlowski JA. Molecular mechanisms regulating glucocorticoid sensitivity and resistance. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2009; 300:7-16. [PMID: 19000736 PMCID: PMC2674248 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2008.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2008] [Revised: 10/08/2008] [Accepted: 10/08/2008] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid receptor agonists are mainstays in the treatment of various malignancies of hematological origin. Glucocorticoids are included in therapeutic regimens for their ability to stimulate intracellular signal transduction cascades that culminate in alterations in the rate of transcription of genes involved in cell cycle progression and programmed cell death. Unfortunately, subpopulations of patients undergoing systemic glucocorticoid therapy for these diseases are or become insensitive to glucocorticoid-induced cell death, a phenomenon recognized as glucocorticoid resistance. Multiple factors contributing to glucocorticoid resistance have been identified. Here we summarize several of these mechanisms and describe the processes involved in generating a host of glucocorticoid receptor isoforms from one gene. The potential role of glucocorticoid receptor isoforms in determining cellular responsiveness to glucocorticoids is emphasized.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - John A. Cidlowski
- Corresponding Author. Mailing address: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, P.O. Box 12233, MD F3-07, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, Phone: 919-541-1564. Fax: 919-541-1367. E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
De Bosscher K, Haegeman G. Minireview: latest perspectives on antiinflammatory actions of glucocorticoids. Mol Endocrinol 2008; 23:281-91. [PMID: 19095768 DOI: 10.1210/me.2008-0283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Taking into consideration that glucocorticoid (GC) hormones have been used clinically for over half a century and that more than 20 yr have passed since the cloning of the GC receptor (GR), it is hard to imagine that novel aspects in the molecular mechanism by which GCs mediate their antiinflammatory actions are still being unveiled today. Partly, this is because almost on a daily basis, novel insights arise from parallel fields, e.g. nuclear receptor cofactor and chromatin regulation and their concomitant impact on gene transcription events, eventually leading to a revisitation or refinement of old hypotheses. On the other hand, it does remain striking and puzzling why GCs use different mechanisms in so many different cell types and on many different target genes to elicit an antiinflammatory effect. Meanwhile, the obvious question for the clinic remains: is the separation of GR functionalities through differential ligand design the strategy of choice to avoid most GC-mediated side effects? This minireview aims to highlight some of the latest findings on aspects of the antiinflammatory working mechanisms of GCs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karolien De Bosscher
- Laboratory of Eukaryotic Gene Expression and Signal Transduction (LEGEST), Department of Physiology, Ghent University, KL Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Gent, Belgium.
| | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Koeijvoets KCMC, van der Net JB, van Rossum EFC, Steyerberg EW, Defesche JC, Kastelein JJP, Lamberts SWJ, Sijbrands EJG. Two common haplotypes of the glucocorticoid receptor gene are associated with increased susceptibility to cardiovascular disease in men with familial hypercholesterolemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93:4902-8. [PMID: 18812484 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2008-0813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Glucocorticoids contribute to the development of atherosclerosis. Four polymorphisms in the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) gene have been reported to alter glucocorticoid sensitivity and have been associated with cardiovascular risk factors. Studies on the relationship between these GR variants and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, however, have yielded conflicting results. OBJECTIVE We sought to determine whether haplotypes based on functional polymorphisms in the GR gene influenced susceptibility to CVD in a high-risk population. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS In a multicenter cohort study, 1830 patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia were genotyped for the functional ER22/23EK, N363S, BclI, and 9beta variants. We analyzed the combined effect of all GR variants by constructing haplotypes and using a Cox proportional hazards regression model with adjustment for year of birth and smoking. The analyses were stratified for sex. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES The primary outcome measure was CVD defined as coronary, cerebral, and peripheral artery disease. RESULTS A total of 359 men (40.8%) and 224 women (23.6%) had a cardiovascular event. In men, the BclI haplotype was associated with a 34% higher CVD risk (confidence interval 1.02-1.76; P = 0.03) and the 9beta haplotype with a 41% higher CVD risk (confidence interval 1.02-1.94; P = 0.04). In women, none of the GR haplotypes was significantly related with CVD. We did not find differences in cardiovascular risk factors between GR haplotypes. CONCLUSIONS In this large cohort of high-risk individuals, two common haplotypes in the GR gene modified CVD susceptibility among men.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kristel C M C Koeijvoets
- Department of Internal Medicine, D-435, Erasmus Medical Center, University Medical Center, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Root B, Abrassart J, Myers DA, Monau T, Ducsay CA. Expression and distribution of glucocorticoid receptors in the ovine fetal adrenal cortex: effect of long-term hypoxia. Reprod Sci 2008; 15:517-28. [PMID: 18579860 DOI: 10.1177/1933719107311782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
This study was designed to determine if long-term hypoxia (LTH) alters adrenal glucocorticoid receptor (GR) expression in the ovine fetal adrenal cortex. Ewes were maintained at 3820 m from approximately 30 to 138 to 140 days' gestation, and fetal adrenals were collected. Western analysis revealed two approximately 94-kDa GR-alpha isoforms and a lower molecular weight (45 kDa) form. A decreasing trend in the ratio of 94-kDa/45-kDa bands following LTH suggested an increase in GR turnover. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated dense GR staining in the zona glomerulosa with minimal staining in the zona fasciculata in the control group, while dense staining was observed throughout the cortex in LTH. Western analysis and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction confirmed that the GR- beta isoform is not present or expressed at extremely low levels in the fetal adrenal, hypothalamus, pituitary, and placenta. These data indicate that LTH alters GR-alpha function in the fetal adrenal cortex and suggest that GR-beta is not expressed in sheep.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brandon Root
- University of Redlands, Redlands, California, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Kochetov AV. Alternative translation start sites and hidden coding potential of eukaryotic mRNAs. Bioessays 2008; 30:683-91. [PMID: 18536038 DOI: 10.1002/bies.20771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
It is widely suggested that a eukaryotic mRNA typically contains one translation start site and encodes a single functional protein product. However, according to current points of view on translation initiation mechanisms, eukaryotic ribosomes can recognize several alternative translation start sites and the number of experimentally verified examples of alternative translation is growing rapidly. Also, the frequent occurrence of alternative translation events and their functional significance are supported by the results of computational evaluations. The functional role of alternative translation and its contribution to eukaryotic proteome complexity are discussed.
Collapse
|
37
|
Di Bella ML, Vazzana M, Vizzini A, Parrinello N. Glucocorticoid receptor (DlGR1) is expressed in pre-larval and larval stages of the teleost fish Dicentrarchus labrax. Cell Tissue Res 2008; 333:39-47. [PMID: 18463897 PMCID: PMC2441495 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-008-0605-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2007] [Revised: 02/15/2008] [Accepted: 02/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid hormone receptors (GR), members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily, are ligand-dependent transcription factors expressed in various tissues by binding to specific DNA sequences. Since glucocorticoids have a role in maintaining the homeostatic status in fish, we previously cloned and sequenced a GR (DlGR1) of adult Dicentrarchus labrax; we also showed mRNA expression (in situ hybridization) and tissue immunohistochemical localization of DlGR1 in several organs. This work has now been extended to the examination of the expression, tissue distribution, and cytolocalization of DlGR1 in larval developmental stages by similar methods to those used for the adult organs. The riboprobe included the DlGR1 cDNA transcriptional activation domain (1.0–1,300 nucleotide sequence) showing no significant similarity with a known second GR cDNA sequence of sea bass. The antibody was specific for an opportunely selected peptide sequence of the DlGR1 transcriptional domain. In histological sections of brain, head kidney, gills, liver, anterior intestine, and spleen cells, the riboprobe was mainly located in the cell nucleus. The antibody identified DlGR1 in the head kidney, gills, liver, and anterior intestine, mainly located in the cytosol. These results are in agreement with the receptor location in adult tissues. The greater presence of both the transcript and protein of DlGR1 in the late developmental stages suggests an increasing expression of this receptor. The cytolocalization (nuclear-cytosolic) and presumptive roles of DlGR1-containing tissues are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M L Di Bella
- Laboratory of Marine Immunobiology, Department of Animal Biology, University of Palermo, Via Archirafi 18, 90123, Palermo, Italy
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Faria CDC, Longui CA. [Molecular aspects of glucocorticoid sensitivity]. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 50:983-95. [PMID: 17221103 DOI: 10.1590/s0004-27302006000600003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2005] [Accepted: 05/29/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids play an essential role in maintaining basal and stress-related homeostasis. Most known effects of glucocorticoids are mediated by the intracellular glucocorticoid receptors. The glucocorticoid sensitivity seems to depend on the amount of receptors expressed and the efficiency of glucocorticoid receptor-mediated signal transduction. Glucocorticoid resistance or hypersensitivity, seen in autoimmune-inflammatory diseases and in metabolic syndrome respectively, can represent the variability of several steps that influence the signaling cascade of glucocorticoid action. The recognition of these steps could provide the understanding of the clinical phenotype and course of such diseases as well as their responsiveness to glucocorticoid therapy. The comprehension of these pathophysiological mechanisms can also improve the possible therapeutic interventions. In this review, we have summarized the multiple factors that have been shown to be involved in this signaling cascade and, thus, to influence glucocorticoid sensitivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cláudia D C Faria
- Laboratório de Medicina Molecular, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Santa Casa de São Paulo, SP.
| | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Honda Y, Ohno S, Nakajin S. Leydig cells from neonatal pig testis abundantly express 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11beta-HSD) type 2 and effectively inactivate cortisol to cortisone. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2008; 108:91-101. [PMID: 17942303 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2007.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2006] [Accepted: 07/18/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
11beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11beta-HSD) isozymes, designated types 1 and 2, catalyze the interconversion of physiologically active glucocorticoids and inactive 11-keto forms. The presence of types 1 and 2 was determined in neonatal pig testis and Leydig cells purified from testes by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, Western blotting, and immunohistochemical staining. Type 2 mRNA was expressed at a high level in neonatal pig testis. In particular, in the entire testis, a higher level of type 2 was expressed compared to type 1. Furthermore, these expression levels in the testis were compared with the expression levels of the respective isozymes in pig liver and kidney, which are known to have high levels. Next, the direction of glucocorticoid metabolism in intact Leydig cells was examined, and only oxidation from cortisol to cortisone was detected. Virtually no reduction of cortisone to cortisol was detected. Using a microsomal enzyme preparation from Leydig cells, type 2 exhibited potent oxidation activity, and the activity was higher than the oxidation activity catalyzed by the type 1 isozyme. In kinetic analysis, the K(m) and V(max) for type 1 were 1.36 microM and 0.91 nmol/(h mg), respectively, and 0.38 microM and 1.25 nmol/(h mg), respectively, for type 2. The results of the present study using neonatal pig testis suggest that not only 11beta-HSD type 1 but also type 2, which is abundantly expressed, plays important roles in cortisol inactivation in pig Leydig cells, and furthermore, that excess cortisol will cause glucocorticoid-mediated suppression of testosterone production in even neonatal pig Leydig cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Y Honda
- Department of Biochemistry, Hoshi University School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-4-41 Ebara, Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Meyers JA, Taverna J, Chaves J, Makkinje A, Lerner A. Phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors augment levels of glucocorticoid receptor in B cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia but not in normal circulating hematopoietic cells. Clin Cancer Res 2007; 13:4920-7. [PMID: 17699872 PMCID: PMC2656255 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-07-0276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Type 4 cyclic AMP (cAMP) phosphodiesterase (PDE4) inhibitors, a class of compounds in clinical development that activate cAMP-mediated signaling by inhibiting cAMP catabolism, offer a feasible means by which to potentiate glucocorticoid-mediated apoptosis in lymphoid malignancies such as B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (B-CLL). In this study, we show that PDE4 inhibitors up-regulate glucocorticoid receptor (GRalpha) transcript levels in B-CLL cells but not T-CLL cells or Sezary cells or normal circulating T cells, B cells, monocytes, or neutrophils. Because GRalpha transcript half-life does not vary in CLL cells treated with the prototypic PDE4 inhibitor rolipram, the 4-fold increase in GRalpha mRNA levels observed within 4 h of rolipram treatment seems to result from an increase in GRalpha transcription. Rolipram treatment increases levels of transcripts derived from the 1A3 promoter to a greater extent than the 1B promoter. Treatment of B-CLL cells with two other PDE4 inhibitors currently in clinical development also augments GR transcript levels and glucocorticoid-mediated apoptosis. Washout studies show that simultaneous treatment with both drug classes irreversibly augments apoptosis over the same time frame that GR up-regulation occurs. Although treatment of B-CLL cells with glucocorticoids reduces basal GRalpha transcript levels in a dose-related manner, cotreatment with rolipram maintained GRalpha transcript levels above baseline. Our results suggest that as a result of their unusual sensitivity to PDE4 inhibitor-mediated up-regulation of GRalpha expression, treatment of B-CLL patients with combined PDE4 inhibitor/glucocorticoid therapy may be of therapeutic benefit in this disease.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- 3',5'-Cyclic-AMP Phosphodiesterases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Aminopyridines/pharmacology
- Apoptosis/drug effects
- Benzamides/pharmacology
- Carboxylic Acids/pharmacology
- Cyclic Nucleotide Phosphodiesterases, Type 4
- Cyclohexanecarboxylic Acids
- Cyclopropanes/pharmacology
- Dexamethasone/pharmacology
- Gene Expression Regulation, Leukemic/drug effects
- Hematopoietic System/chemistry
- Hematopoietic System/cytology
- Hematopoietic System/drug effects
- Humans
- Leukemia, Lymphocytic, Chronic, B-Cell/drug therapy
- Leukemia, Lymphocytic, Chronic, B-Cell/metabolism
- Nitriles/pharmacology
- Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/analysis
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/drug effects
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/genetics
- Rolipram/pharmacology
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John A. Meyers
- Evans Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology and Oncology, Boston Medical Center
- Department of Pathology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Josephine Taverna
- Evans Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology and Oncology, Boston Medical Center
| | - Jorge Chaves
- Evans Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology and Oncology, Boston Medical Center
| | - Anthony Makkinje
- Evans Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology and Oncology, Boston Medical Center
| | - Adam Lerner
- Evans Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology and Oncology, Boston Medical Center
- Department of Pathology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Gupta V, Awasthi N, Wagner BJ. Specific activation of the glucocorticoid receptor and modulation of signal transduction pathways in human lens epithelial cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2007; 48:1724-34. [PMID: 17389505 PMCID: PMC2814520 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.06-0889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Prolonged use of glucocorticoids (GCs) can lead to cataract formation. Lens GC responses have been difficult to elucidate. A previous study showed the presence of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in immortalized and primary human lens epithelial cells (hLECs) and GC-induced changes in gene expression. This study demonstrates specific GR activation and identifies the biological effect of GC-induced changes in gene expression in hLECs. METHODS HLE B-3 (B-3) and primary cultures of hLECs were transfected with pGRE.Luc and treated with or without dexamethasone (Dex), RU-486, spironolactone, or vehicle. mRNA and protein expression were examined by real-time PCR and Western blot analysis, respectively. Cell proliferation and apoptosis were examined by WST-1 and flow cytometry, respectively. RESULTS Dex treatment of B-3 and primary cultures demonstrated specific GR, but not mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), activation and phosphorylation. Pathway analysis revealed GC-induced changes in expression of MAPK regulators. Increased expression of GILZ mRNA and MKP-1 mRNA and protein was observed in immortalized and donor hLECs. This corresponded with a decrease in the phosphorylated forms of RAF, ERK, p38, and AKT, but not in JNK. No net change in LEC proliferation or apoptosis was observed with Dex treatment. CONCLUSIONS GC treatment of hLECs activates the GR to modulate the expression of MAPK and PI3K/AKT regulators. This is the first demonstration of GC signaling in hLECs. GCs, MAPK, and PI3K/AKT are involved in cell processes implicated in steroid-induced cataractogenesis. The absence of a net change in cell activity with acute steroid treatment is consistent with the possibility that chronic treatment leads to prolonged modulation of these pathways and steroid-induced cataract.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vanita Gupta
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, the Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark, NJ, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Kwok AHY, Wang Y, Wang CY, Leung FC. Cloning of Chicken Glucocorticoid Receptor (GR) and Characterization of its Expression in Pituitary and Extrapituitary Tissues. Poult Sci 2007; 86:423-30. [PMID: 17234861 DOI: 10.1093/ps/86.2.423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Substantial evidence suggests that glucocorticoids play critical roles in the differentiation of somatotroph and lactotroph in embryonic pituitaries of birds. However, the basic information on the expression of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in avian species is limited. In this study, the full-length cDNA for chicken GR was cloned from the chicken kidney. It encodes 772 amino acids and shares high homology with that of the human (73%), mouse (73%), rat (71%), rabbit (72%), and trout (51%) sequences. Similar to mammals, chicken GR is widely expressed in all adult tissues being investigated. Among the 12 tissues investigated, relatively high expression of GR was detected in pituitary, muscle, ovary, and kidney using reverse transcription-PCR assay. Using semiquantitative reverse transcription-PCR, GR is shown to be abundantly expressed at a more or less constant level during embryonic pituitary development (from d 8 to 20), supporting the hypothesis that the expression of GR is unlikely to be a limiting factor in initiating the differentiation of somatotroph and lactotroph in embryonic pituitary of birds. Moreover, an abundant expression of GR in the whole embryos at earlier developmental stages (from d 2 to 5) was also detected in the present study, though its physiological relevance remains to be determined.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A H Y Kwok
- Department of Zoology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Lewis-Tuffin LJ, Jewell CM, Bienstock RJ, Collins JB, Cidlowski JA. Human glucocorticoid receptor beta binds RU-486 and is transcriptionally active. Mol Cell Biol 2007; 27:2266-82. [PMID: 17242213 PMCID: PMC1820503 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.01439-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Human glucocorticoid receptor (hGR) is expressed as two alternately spliced C-terminal isoforms, alpha and beta. In contrast to the canonical hGRalpha, hGRbeta is a nucleus-localized orphan receptor thought not to bind ligand and not to affect gene transcription other than by acting as a dominant negative to hGRalpha. Here we used confocal microscopy to examine the cellular localization of transiently expressed fluorescent protein-tagged hGRbeta in COS-1 and U-2 OS cells. Surprisingly, yellow fluorescent protein (YFP)-hGRbeta was predominantly located in the cytoplasm and translocated to the nucleus following application of the glucocorticoid antagonist RU-486. This effect of RU-486 was confirmed with transiently expressed wild-type hGRbeta. Confocal microscopy of coexpressed YFP-hGRbeta and cyan fluorescent protein-hGRalpha in COS-1 cells indicated that the receptors move into the nucleus independently. Using a ligand binding assay, we confirmed that hGRbeta bound RU-486 but not the hGRalpha ligand dexamethasone. Examination of the cellular localization of YFP-hGRbeta in response to a series of 57 related compounds indicated that RU-486 is thus far the only identified ligand that interacts with hGRbeta. The selective interaction of RU-486 with hGRbeta was also supported by molecular modeling and computational docking studies. Interestingly, microarray analysis indicates that hGRbeta, expressed in the absence of hGRalpha, can regulate gene expression and furthermore that occupation of hGRbeta with the antagonist RU-486 diminishes that capacity despite the lack of helix 12 in the ligand binding domain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura J Lewis-Tuffin
- Laboratory of Signal Transduciton, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Stojadinovic O, Lee B, Vouthounis C, Vukelic S, Pastar I, Blumenberg M, Brem H, Tomic-Canic M. Novel genomic effects of glucocorticoids in epidermal keratinocytes: inhibition of apoptosis, interferon-gamma pathway, and wound healing along with promotion of terminal differentiation. J Biol Chem 2006; 282:4021-34. [PMID: 17095510 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m606262200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) have a long history of use as therapeutic agents for numerous skin diseases. Surprisingly, their specific molecular effects are largely unknown. To characterize GC action in epidermis, we compared the transcriptional profiles of primary human keratinocytes untreated and treated with dexamethasone (DEX) for 1, 4, 24, 48, and 72 h using large scale microarray analyses. The majority of genes were found to be regulated only after 24 h and remained regulated throughout treatment. In addition to regulation of the expected pro-inflammatory genes, we found that GCs regulate cell fate, tissue remodeling, cell motility, differentiation, and metabolism. GCs suppress the expression of essentially all IFNgamma-regulated genes, including IFNgamma receptor and STAT-1, an effect that was previously unknown. GCs also block STAT-1 activation and nuclear translocation. Unexpectedly, GCs induce the expression of anti-apoptotic genes and repress pro-apoptotic ones, preventing UV-induced keratinocyte apoptosis. Consequently, treatment with GCs blocked UV-induced apoptosis of keratinocytes. GCs have profound effect on wound healing by inhibiting cell motility and the expression of the proangiogenic factor, vascular endothelial growth factor. They play an important role in tissue remodeling and scar formation by suppressing the expression of TGFbeta1 and -2 and MMP1, -2, -9, and -10 and inducing TIMP-2. Finally, GCs promote terminal epidermal differentiation while simultaneously inhibiting early stage differentiation. These results provide new insights into the beneficial and adverse effects of GCs in the epidermis, defining the participating genes and mechanisms that coordinate the cellular responses important for GC-based therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olivera Stojadinovic
- Hospital for Special Surgery, Tissue Repair Laboratory, Tissue Engineering, Regeneration and Repair Program, New York, New York 10021, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Abstract
Stress-induced glucocorticoid hormones support coping with and adaptation to different stressors. They act to modulate gene expression in a tissue and stressor-specific manner through activation of corticosteroid receptors, which act as transcription factors. Here, a number of recent insights in gene regulation under the influence of glucocorticoids are discussed. Emphasis is put on distinct classes of target genes that may be defined, based on categorization of (combinations of) transcription factor binding sites in responsive genes. These categories depend on insights into different mechanisms of transcriptional regulation, such as transactivation vs transrepression, and high affinity vs low affinity hormone receptor response elements. It is argued that such classes, based on mechanistic understanding of transcription regulation, in combination with the availability of complete genomic sequences and expression data from different organs, may enhance our understanding of the way in which organisms deal with different forms of stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- O C Meijer
- Division of Medical Pharmacology, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research and Leiden University Medical Center, PO Box 9503, Leiden, 2300 RA, The Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
van Rossum EFC, Binder EB, Majer M, Koper JW, Ising M, Modell S, Salyakina D, Lamberts SWJ, Holsboer F. Polymorphisms of the glucocorticoid receptor gene and major depression. Biol Psychiatry 2006; 59:681-8. [PMID: 16580345 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2005] [Revised: 12/23/2005] [Accepted: 02/15/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The most consistent biological finding in patients with depression is a hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis, which might be caused by impaired glucocorticoid signaling. Glucocorticoids act through the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) for which several polymorphisms have been described. The N363S and BclI polymorphisms have been associated with hypersensitivity to glucocorticoids, whereas the ER22/23EK polymorphism is related to glucocorticoid resistance. METHODS We studied whether the susceptibility to develop a depression is related to these polymorphisms by comparing depressive inpatients (n = 490) and healthy control subjects (n = 496). Among depressed patients, we also investigated the relation between GR variants and dysregulation of the HPA-axis, as measured by the combined dexamethasone suppression/corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)-stimulation test, clinical response to antidepressive treatment, and cognitive functioning. RESULTS Homozygous carriers of the BclI polymorphism and ER22/23EK-carriers had an increased risk of developing a major depressive episode. We found no genetic associations with functional HPA-axis measures in depressed patients. The ER22/23EK-carriers, however, showed a significantly faster clinical response to antidepressant therapy as well as a trend toward better cognitive functioning during depression. CONCLUSIONS The BclI and ER22/23EK polymorphisms were associated with susceptibility to develop major depression. In addition, the ER22/23EK polymorphism is associated with a faster clinical response to antidepressant treatment. These findings support the notion that variants of the GR gene might play a role in the pathophysiology of a major depression and can contribute to the variability of antidepressant response.
Collapse
|
47
|
|
48
|
DeRijk R, de Kloet ER. Corticosteroid receptor genetic polymorphisms and stress responsivity. Endocrine 2005; 28:263-70. [PMID: 16388115 DOI: 10.1385/endo:28:3:263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2005] [Accepted: 07/13/2005] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
A fundamental question in the neuroendocrinology of stress-related psychopathology is why some individuals flourish and others perish under similar adverse conditions. In this contribution we focus on the variants of mineralocorticorticoid (MR) and glucocorticoid receptors (GR) that operate in balance and coordinate behavioral, autonomic, and neuroendocrine response patterns involved in homeostasis and health. In the GR-gene, three single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) have been associated with changes in metabolic profile and cardiovascular parameters: the ER22/23EK with a favorable and the N363S and the Bcl1 with a more adverse profile. Importantly, the N363S and the Bcl1 are found to increase cortisol responses to a psychosocial stressor. As a result, the whole body will suffer from overexposure with possible adverse effects on metabolism, cardiovascular control, immune function, and behavior. Also in the MR gene, variants are being identified that are associated with dysregulated autonomic, behavioral, and neuroendocrine responses. The data suggest that these MR and GR variants contribute to individual differences in resilience and vulnerability to stressors, and that these receptors therefore are potential drug targets for recovery of homeostasis and health.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Adaptation, Physiological
- Humans
- Hydrocortisone/metabolism
- Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide/genetics
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/genetics
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/metabolism
- Receptors, Mineralocorticoid/genetics
- Receptors, Mineralocorticoid/metabolism
- Stress, Physiological/genetics
- Stress, Physiological/metabolism
- Stress, Psychological/genetics
- Stress, Psychological/metabolism
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roel DeRijk
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Saito S, Sidis Y, Mukherjee A, Xia Y, Schneyer A. Differential biosynthesis and intracellular transport of follistatin isoforms and follistatin-like-3. Endocrinology 2005; 146:5052-62. [PMID: 16150905 DOI: 10.1210/en.2005-0833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Follistatin (FST) and FST-like-3 (FSTL3) are structurally related proteins that bind and neutralize activin and closely related members of the TGFbeta superfamily. Three FST isoforms (FST288, FST303, and FST315) are produced from the Fst gene that are primarily secreted proteins. FSTL3 is secreted, but is also observed within the nucleus of most cells. We used pulse-chase (35)S labeling to examine the biosynthetic and intracellular transport patterns that lead to differential secretion and intracellular retention of these proteins. Among the FST isoforms, FST315 was secreted fastest and FST288 was secreted more slowly, with some remaining intracellular. In contrast, FSTL3 was secreted the slowest, with newly synthesized proteins being both secreted and trafficked to the nucleus. This nuclear FSTL3 was N-glycosylated, although not to the same degree as secreted FSTL3. Both FST and FSTL3 have two Mets in their signal sequence. Mutation of the first Met in FST288 eliminated protein translation, whereas FSTL3 could be translated from either Met. However, although FSTL3 translated from the second Met, which had no signal sequence, was confined to the nucleus, it was not glycosylated. Interestingly, this FSTL3 retained activin-antagonizing activity. Thus, although bioactive, nuclear FSTL3 can be translated from the second Met when the first Met is mutated, the glycosylated nuclear FSTL3 produced endogenously indicates that a different mechanism must be used under natural conditions that apparently includes N-glycosylation. Moreover, the differential biosynthetic and intracellular transport patterns for FST288 and FSTL3 suggest that these two activin-binding proteins may have distinct intracellular roles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seiichiro Saito
- Reproductive Endocrine Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, 02114, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Affiliation(s)
- Turk Rhen
- Department of Biology, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|