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Korn EL, Freidlin B. Design of randomized clinical trials with a binary endpoint: Conditional versus unconditional analyses of a two-by-two table. Stat Med 2024. [PMID: 38780538 DOI: 10.1002/sim.10115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
When designing a randomized clinical trial to compare two treatments, the sample size required to have desired power with a specified type 1 error depends on the hypothesis testing procedure. With a binary endpoint (e.g., response), the trial results can be displayed in a 2 × 2 table. If one does the analysis conditional on the number of positive responses, then using Fisher's exact test has an actual type 1 error less than or equal to the specified nominal type 1 error. Alternatively, one can use one of many unconditional "exact" tests that also preserve the type 1 error and are less conservative than Fisher's exact test. In particular, the unconditional test of Boschloo is always at least as powerful as Fisher's exact test, leading to smaller required sample sizes for clinical trials. However, many statisticians have argued over the years that the conditional analysis with Fisher's exact test is the only appropriate procedure. Since having smaller clinical trials is an extremely important consideration, we review the general arguments given for the conditional analysis of a 2 × 2 table in the context of a randomized clinical trial. We find the arguments not relevant in this context, or, if relevant, not completely convincing, suggesting the sample-size advantage of the unconditional tests should lead to their recommended use. We also briefly suggest that since designers of clinical trials practically always have target null and alternative response rates, there is the possibility of using this information to improve the power of the unconditional tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward L Korn
- Biometric Research Program, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Boris Freidlin
- Biometric Research Program, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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2
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Liu P, Chen MH, Sinks S, Sun P. Are the tests overpowered or underpowered? A unified solution to correctly specify type I errors in design of clinical trials for two sample proportions. Stat Med 2024; 43:1688-1707. [PMID: 38373827 DOI: 10.1002/sim.10005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
As one of the most commonly used data types, methods in testing or designing a trial for binary endpoints from two independent populations are still being developed until recently. However, the power and the minimum required sample size comparisons between different tests may not be valid if their type I errors are not controlled at the same level. In this article, we unify all related testing procedures into a decision framework, including both frequentist and Bayesian methods. Sufficient conditions of the type I error attained at the boundary of hypotheses are derived, which help reduce the magnitude of the exact calculations and lay out a foundation for developing computational algorithms to correctly specify the actual type I error. The efficient algorithms are thus proposed to calculate the cutoff value in a deterministic decision rule and the probability value in a randomized decision rule, such that the actual type I error is under but closest to, or equal to, the intended level, respectively. The algorithm may also be used to calculate the sample size to achieve the prespecified type I error and power. The usefulness of the proposed methodology is further demonstrated in the power calculation for designing superiority and noninferiority trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peiran Liu
- Department of Statistics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
| | - Ming-Hui Chen
- Department of Statistics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
| | - Susie Sinks
- Research and Development, Biogen, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Peng Sun
- Research and Development, Biogen, Cambridge, MA, USA
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3
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Lakkis H, Lakkis A. Analysis of two binomial proportions in noninferiority confirmatory trials. Pharm Stat 2024; 23:257-275. [PMID: 38083906 DOI: 10.1002/pst.2351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
In this article, we propose considering an approximate exact score (AES) test for noninferiority comparisons and we derive its test-based confidence interval for the difference between two independent binomial proportions. This test was published in the literature, but not its associated confidence interval. The p-value for this test is obtained by using exact binomial probabilities with the nuisance parameter being replaced by its restricted maximum likelihood estimate. Calculated type I errors revealed that the AES method has important advantages for noninferiority comparisons over popular asymptotic methods for adequately powered confirmatory clinical trials, at 80% or 90% statistical power. For unbalanced sample sizes of the compared groups, type I errors for the asymptotic score method were shown to be higher than the nominal level in a systematic pattern over a range of true proportions, but the AES method did not suffer from such a problem. On average, the true type I error of the AES method was closer to the nominal level than all considered methods in the empirical comparisons. In rare cases, type I errors of the AES test exceeded the nominal level, but only by a small amount. Presented examples showed that the AES method can be more attractive in practice than practical exact methods. In addition, p-value and confidence interval of the AES method can be obtained in <30 s of computer time for most confirmatory trials. Theoretical arguments, combined with empirical evidence and fast computation time should make the AES method attractive in statistical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hassan Lakkis
- Biostatistics, Intra-Cellular Therapies, Inc, New York, New York, USA
| | - Andrew Lakkis
- Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology, and Informatics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Thio CL, Taddese M, Saad Y, Zambo K, Ribeiro RM, Grudda T, Sulkowski MS, Sterling RK, Zhang Y, Young ED, Hwang HS, Balagopal A. Hepatitis B e Antigen-Negative Single Hepatocyte Analysis Shows Transcriptional Silencing and Slow Decay of Infected Cells With Treatment. J Infect Dis 2023; 228:1219-1226. [PMID: 37129258 PMCID: PMC10629706 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiad124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nucleos(t)ide analogues (NUCs) rarely cure chronic hepatitis B (CHB) because they do not eliminate covalently closed circular deoxyribonucleic acid, the stable replication template. In hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg)-positive CHB during NUCs, HBV-infected cells decline slowly and are transcriptionally silenced. Whether these occur in HBeAg-negative CHB is unknown. METHODS Using paired liver biopsies separated by 2.7-3.7 years in 4 males with HIV and HBeAg-negative CHB at both biopsies and 1 male with HIV who underwent HBeAg seroconversion between biopsies, we quantified amounts of viral nucleic acids in hundreds of individual hepatocytes. RESULTS In the 4 persistently HBeAg-negative participants, HBV-infected hepatocytes ranged from 6.2% to 17.7% (biopsy 1) and significantly declined in 3 of 4 by biopsy 2. In the HBeAg seroconverter, the proportion was 97.4% (biopsy 1) and declined to 81.9% at biopsy 2 (P < .05). We extrapolated that HBV eradication with NUCs would take >100 years. At biopsy 1 in the persistently HBeAg-negative participants, 23%-56.8% of infected hepatocytes were transcriptionally inactive-higher than we observed in HBeAg-positive CHB-and significantly declined in 1 of 4 at biopsy 2. CONCLUSIONS In HBeAg-negative CHB on NUCs, the negligible decline in infected hepatocytes is similar to HBeAg-positive CHB, supporting the need for more potent therapeutics to achieve functional cure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe L Thio
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MarylandUSA
| | - Maraake Taddese
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Yasmeen Saad
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Kristina Zambo
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Ruy M Ribeiro
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA
| | - Tanner Grudda
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MarylandUSA
| | - Mark S Sulkowski
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Richard K Sterling
- Divison of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Yang Zhang
- Division of Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Pathology, Joint Pathology Center, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Eric D Young
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Hyon S Hwang
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Ashwin Balagopal
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Graeser K, Blanche PF, Zemtsovski M. Transplantation of initially rejected donor lungs using ex vivo lung perfusion: A 5-year experience. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2023; 67:1210-1218. [PMID: 37329167 DOI: 10.1111/aas.14296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ex vivo lung perfusion (EVLP) is a method for the evaluation and reconditioning of high-risk donor lungs to increase the pool of potential donor lungs. METHODS We reviewed all consecutive patients who received lung transplants from May 2012 to May 2017 with follow-up until July 2021. EVLP was used in lungs initially rejected due to inadequate oxygenation but without other contraindications. Lungs with improved oxygenation levels above the threshold were transplanted. The primary endpoint was the time to graft failure, which was defined as the time from surgery to death or re-transplantation, whichever occurred first. The secondary outcome was freedom from chronic lung allograft dysfunction. RESULTS A total of 157 patients underwent transplantation during the study period. Thirty-nine patients received EVLP-treated donor lungs. Restricted mean graft survival time up to 7 years is 5.14 years for non-EVLP and 4.19 for EVLP, the difference being -0.95 (confidence interval [CI]-1.93 to 0.04, p = .059). The hazard ratio is 1.66 (CI 1.00-2.75, p = .046). Chronic lung allograft dysfunction was the highest contributor to mortality in both groups. There were significant differences in freedom from chronic lung allograft dysfunction at 12 and 24 months of follow-up (p = .005 and p = .030, respectively). Subgroup analyses revealed that the first patients who received EVLP in 2012-2013 had a substantially worse 5-year graft survival than those who received EVLP more recently in 2016-2017 (14.3% vs. 60.0%). For the latter, the 5-year graft survival was observed to be remarkably close to the non-EVLP group (60.8%). CONCLUSION Long-term survival was significantly lower, and lung function was poorer among recipients in the EVLP group than in the non-EVLP group. However, the outcome of patients who received EVLP-treated lungs was observed to improve steadily after the first 2 years after EVLP was introduced in Denmark.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Graeser
- Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, Copenhagen University Hospital-Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Paul F Blanche
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mikhail Zemtsovski
- Department of Thoracic Anesthesiology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Telionis A, Lahmers K, Todd M, Carbonello A, Broaddus CC, Bissett CJ, Hungerford LL. Distribution of Theileria orientalis in Virginia Market Cattle, 2018-2020. Pathogens 2022; 11:1353. [PMID: 36422604 PMCID: PMC9695988 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11111353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Theileria orientalis, genotype Ikeda, was recently detected in North America. Determining the emerging distribution of this pathogen is critical for understanding spread and developing management strategies. Whole blood samples were collected from cattle at Virginia livestock markets from September 2018 through December 2020. Animals were tested for T. orientalis using a universal and then genotype specific real-time PCR based on the MPSP gene. Prevalence for each genotype was analyzed for temporal trends and mapped by county. Spatial patterns were compared between genotypes and assessed for associations with habitat features, cattle movements through cattle markets and county proximity. Overall, 212 of 1980 samples tested positive for T. orientalis with an overall prevalence of 8.7% (172/1980) for genotype Ikeda, 1.8% (36/1980) for genotype Chitose, 0.2% (3/1980) for genotype Buffeli. The Ikeda genotype increased over time in northern and southwestern Virginia markets. The Ikeda and Chitose genotypes occurred in different regions, with little overlap, but for each genotype, spatial distribution was associated with a combination of cattle movements and environmental factors. Genotype specific qPCR testing and surveillance of cattle from across a wide area of Virginia are providing information on temporal, spatial, and other patterns for this emerging disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Telionis
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
| | - Kevin Lahmers
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
- Virginia Tech Animal Laboratory Services (ViTALS), Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
| | - Michelle Todd
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
- Virginia Tech Animal Laboratory Services (ViTALS), Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
| | - Amanda Carbonello
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
- Virginia Tech Animal Laboratory Services (ViTALS), Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
| | - Charles C. Broaddus
- Virginia Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Richmond, VA 23219, USA
| | - Carolynn J. Bissett
- Virginia Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Richmond, VA 23219, USA
| | - Laura L. Hungerford
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
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Fay MP, Proschan MA, Brittain EH, Tiwari R. Interpreting p-Values and Confidence Intervals Using Well-Calibrated Null Preference Priors. Stat Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1214/21-sts833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael P. Fay
- Michael P. Fay is Mathematical Statisticians at the Biostatistics Research Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 5601 Fishers Lane, Rockville, Maryland 20852 USA
| | - Michael A. Proschan
- Michael A. Proschan is Mathematical Statisticians at the Biostatistics Research Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 5601 Fishers Lane, Rockville, Maryland 20852 USA
| | - Erica H. Brittain
- Erica H. Brittain is Mathematical Statisticians at the Biostatistics Research Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 5601 Fishers Lane, Rockville, Maryland 20852 USA
| | - Ram Tiwari
- Ram Tiwari is Head of Statistical Methodology, Bristol Myers Squibb, Global Biometrics and Data Sciences, Bristol Myers Squibb, 3401 Princeton Pike, Lawrence Township, New Jersey, 08648 USA
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Basili M, Muscillo A, Pin P. No-vaxxers are different in public good games. Sci Rep 2022; 12:18132. [PMID: 36307454 PMCID: PMC9616914 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-22390-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In September 2021 we conducted a survey to 1482 people in Italy, when the vaccination campaign against Covid19 was going on. In the first part of the survey we run three simple tests on players' behavior in standard tasks with monetary incentives to measure their risk attitudes, willingness to contribute to a public good in an experimental game, and their beliefs about others' behavior. In the second part, we asked respondents if they were vaccinated and, if not, for what reason. We classified as no-vaxxers those (around [Formula: see text] of the sample) who did not yet start the vaccination process and declared that they intended not to do it in the future. We find that no-vaxxers contribute less to the public good in the experimental game because they trust others less to do so. from the three tests we extrapolated a classification based on the benchmark of rationality and other-regarding preferences for each respondent, and we found that in this respect no-vaxxers do not differ from the rest of the population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcello Basili
- grid.9024.f0000 0004 1757 4641Department of Economics and Statistics, Università di Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Alessio Muscillo
- grid.9024.f0000 0004 1757 4641Department of Economics and Statistics, Università di Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Paolo Pin
- grid.9024.f0000 0004 1757 4641Department of Economics and Statistics, Università di Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy ,grid.7945.f0000 0001 2165 6939BIDSA, Università Bocconi, 20136 Milan, Italy
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