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Krzyscik MA, Karl K, Dudeja P, Krejci P, Hristova K. Quantitative and qualitative differences in the activation of a fibroblast growth factor receptor by different FGF ligands. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2024:S1359-6101(24)00044-3. [PMID: 39043538 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2024.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2024] [Revised: 07/03/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024]
Abstract
The FGF system is the most complex of all receptor tyrosine kinase signaling networks with 18 FGF ligands and four FGFRs that deliver morphogenic signals to pattern most embryonic structures. Even when a single FGFR is expressed in the tissue, different FGFs can trigger dramatically different biological responses via this receptor. Here we show both quantitative and qualitative differences in the signaling of one of the FGF receptors, FGFR1c, in response to different FGFs. We provide an overview of the recent discovery that FGFs engage in biased signaling via FGFR1c. We discuss the concept of ligand bias, which represents qualitative differences in signaling as it is a measure of differential ligand preferences for different downstream responses. We show how FGF ligand bias manifests in functional data in cultured chondrocyte cells. We argue that FGF-ligand bias contributes substantially to FGF-driven developmental processes, along with known differences in FGF expression levels, FGF-FGFR binding coefficients and differences in FGF stability in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateusz A Krzyscik
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Institute for NanoBioTechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Kelly Karl
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Institute for NanoBioTechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Pooja Dudeja
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno 62500, Czech Republic; International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, Brno 65691, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Krejci
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno 62500, Czech Republic; International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, Brno 65691, Czech Republic; Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics of the CAS, Brno 60200, Czech Republic
| | - Kalina Hristova
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Institute for NanoBioTechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA.
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2
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Maekawa M, Saito S, Isobe D, Takemoto K, Miura Y, Dobashi Y, Yamasu K. The Oct4-related PouV gene, pou5f3, mediates isthmus development in zebrafish by directly and dynamically regulating pax2a. Cells Dev 2024:203933. [PMID: 38908828 DOI: 10.1016/j.cdev.2024.203933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
Using a transgenic zebrafish line harboring a heat-inducible dominant-interference pou5f3 gene (en-pou5f3), we reported that this PouV gene is involved in isthmus development at the midbrain-hindbrain boundary (MHB), which patterns the midbrain and cerebellum. Importantly, the functions of pou5f3 reportedly differ before and after the end of gastrulation. In the present study, we examined in detail the effects of en-pou5f3 induction on isthmus development during embryogenesis. When en-pou5f3 was induced around the end of gastrulation (bud stage), the isthmus was abrogated or deformed by the end of somitogenesis (24 hours post-fertilization). At this stage, the expression of MHB markers -- such as pax2a, fgf8a, wnt1, and gbx2 -- was absent in embryos lacking the isthmus structure, whereas it was present, although severely distorted, in embryos with a deformed isthmus. We further found that, after en-pou5f3 induction at late gastrulation, pax2a, fgf8a, and wnt1 were immediately and irreversibly downregulated, whereas the expression of en2a and gbx2 was reduced only weakly and slowly. Induction of en-pou5f3 at early somite stages also immediately downregulated MHB genes, particularly pax2a, but their expression was restored later. Overall, the data suggested that pou5f3 directly upregulates at least pax2a and possibly fgf8a and wnt1, which function in parallel in establishing the MHB, and that the role of pou5f3 dynamically changes around the end of gastrulation. We next examined the transcriptional regulation of pax2a using both in vitro and in vivo reporter analyses; the results showed that two upstream 1.0-kb regions with sequences conserved among vertebrates specifically drove transcription at the MHB. These reporter analyses confirmed that development of the isthmic organizer is regulated by PouV through direct regulation of pax2/pax2a in vertebrate embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masato Maekawa
- Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama City, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Shinji Saito
- Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama City, Saitama 338-8570, Japan; Institute for Vaccine Research and Development, Hokkaido University, N21, W11, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 001-0021, Japan
| | - Daiki Isobe
- Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama City, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Kazumasa Takemoto
- Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama City, Saitama 338-8570, Japan; Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, University of Connecticut, 75 North Eagleville Road, U3156, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Yuhei Miura
- Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama City, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Yurie Dobashi
- Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama City, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Kyo Yamasu
- Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama City, Saitama 338-8570, Japan.
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3
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Fritzsch B. Evolution and development of extraocular motor neurons, nerves and muscles in vertebrates. Ann Anat 2024; 253:152225. [PMID: 38346566 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2024.152225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to analyze the origin of ocular motor neurons, define the pattern of innervation of nerve fibers that project to the extraocular eye muscles (EOMs), describe congenital disorders that alter the development of ocular motor neurons, and provide an overview of vestibular pathway inputs to ocular motor nuclei. Six eye muscles are innervated by axons of three ocular motor neurons, the oculomotor (CNIII), trochlear (CNIV), and abducens (CNVI) neurons. Ocular motor neurons (CNIII) originate in the midbrain and innervate the ipsilateral orbit, except for the superior rectus and the levator palpebrae, which are contralaterally innervated. Trochlear motor neurons (CNIV) originate at the midbrain-hindbrain junction and innervate the contralateral superior oblique muscle. Abducens motor neurons (CNVI) originate variously in the hindbrain of rhombomeres r4-6 that innervate the posterior (or lateral) rectus muscle and innervate the retractor bulbi. Genes allow a distinction between special somatic (CNIII, IV) and somatic (CNVI) ocular motor neurons. Development of ocular motor neurons and their axonal projections to the EOMs may be derailed by various genetic causes, resulting in the congenital cranial dysinnervation disorders. The ocular motor neurons innervate EOMs while the vestibular nuclei connect with the midbrain-brainstem motor neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Fritzsch
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Nebraska Medical Center, NE, USA.
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4
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Kondoh H, Takemoto T. The Origin and Regulation of Neuromesodermal Progenitors (NMPs) in Embryos. Cells 2024; 13:549. [PMID: 38534393 DOI: 10.3390/cells13060549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Neuromesodermal progenitors (NMPs), serving as the common origin of neural and paraxial mesodermal development in a large part of the trunk, have recently gained significant attention because of their critical importance in the understanding of embryonic organogenesis and the design of in vitro models of organogenesis. However, the nature of NMPs at many essential points remains only vaguely understood or even incorrectly assumed. Here, we discuss the nature of NMPs, focusing on their dynamic migratory behavior during embryogenesis and the mechanisms underlying their neural vs. mesodermal fate choice. The discussion points include the following: (1) How the sinus rhomboidals is organized; the tissue where the neural or mesodermal fate choice of NMPs occurs. (2) NMPs originating from the broad posterior epiblast are associated with Sox2 N1 enhancer activity. (3) Tbx6-dependent Sox2 repression occurs during NMP-derived paraxial mesoderm development. (4) The nephric mesenchyme, a component of the intermediate mesoderm, was newly identified as an NMP derivative. (5) The transition of embryonic tissue development from tissue-specific progenitors in the anterior part to that from NMPs occurs at the forelimb bud axial level. (6) The coexpression of Sox2 and Bra in NMPs is conditional and is not a hallmark of NMPs. (7) The ability of the NMP pool to sustain axial embryo growth depends on Wnt3a signaling in the NMP population. Current in vitro models of NMPs are also critically reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hisato Kondoh
- Biohistory Research Hall, Takatsuki 569-1125, Japan
- Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Takemoto
- Laboratory for Embryology, Institute for Advanced Medical Sciences, Tokushima University, Tokushima 770-8503, Japan
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5
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Offen N, Filatova A, Nuber UA. Enrichment of FGF8-expressing cells from neurally induced human pluripotent stem cell cultures. Stem Cell Reports 2023; 18:2240-2253. [PMID: 37922914 PMCID: PMC10679777 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2023.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In early vertebrate development, organizer regions-groups of cells that signal to and thereby influence neighboring cells by secreted morphogens-play pivotal roles in the establishment and maintenance of cell identities within defined tissue territories. The midbrain-hindbrain organizer drives regionalization of neural tissue into midbrain and hindbrain territories with fibroblast growth factor 8 (FGF8) acting as a key morphogen. This organizer has been extensively studied in chicken, mouse, and zebrafish. Here, we demonstrate the enrichment of FGF8-expressing cells from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs), cultured as attached embryoid bodies using antibodies that recognize "Similar Expression to Fgf" (SEF) and Frizzled proteins. The arrangement of cells in embryoid body subsets of these cultures and the gene expression profile of the FGF8-expressing population show certain similarities to the midbrain-hindbrain organizer in animal models. In the embryonic chick brain, the enriched cell population induces formation of midbrain structures, consistent with FGF8-organizing capability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Offen
- Stem Cell and Developmental Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Alina Filatova
- Stem Cell and Developmental Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Ulrike A Nuber
- Stem Cell and Developmental Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany.
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6
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Senner CE, Dong Z, Prater M, Branco MR, Watson ED. One-carbon metabolism is required for epigenetic stability in the mouse placenta. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1209928. [PMID: 37440923 PMCID: PMC10333575 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1209928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
One-carbon metabolism, including the folate cycle, has a crucial role in fetal development though its molecular function is complex and unclear. The hypomorphic Mtrr gt allele is known to disrupt one-carbon metabolism, and thus methyl group availability, leading to several developmental phenotypes (e.g., neural tube closure defects, fetal growth anomalies). Remarkably, previous studies showed that some of the phenotypes were transgenerationally inherited. Here, we explored the genome-wide epigenetic impact of one-carbon metabolism in placentas associated with fetal growth phenotypes and determined whether specific DNA methylation changes were inherited. Firstly, methylome analysis of Mtrr gt/gt homozygous placentas revealed genome-wide epigenetic instability. Several differentially methylated regions (DMRs) were identified including at the Cxcl1 gene promoter and at the En2 gene locus, which may have phenotypic implications. Importantly, we discovered hypomethylation and ectopic expression of a subset of ERV elements throughout the genome of Mtrr gt/gt placentas with broad implications for genomic stability. Next, we determined that known spermatozoan DMRs in Mtrr gt/gt males were reprogrammed in the placenta with little evidence of direct or transgenerational germline DMR inheritance. However, some spermatozoan DMRs were associated with placental gene misexpression despite normalisation of DNA methylation, suggesting the inheritance of an alternative epigenetic mechanism. Integration of published wildtype histone ChIP-seq datasets with Mtrr gt/gt spermatozoan methylome and placental transcriptome datasets point towards H3K4me3 deposition at key loci. These data suggest that histone modifications might play a role in epigenetic inheritance in this context. Overall, this study sheds light on the mechanistic complexities of one-carbon metabolism in development and epigenetic inheritance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire E. Senner
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Physiology, Development, and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Ziqi Dong
- Department of Physiology, Development, and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Malwina Prater
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Miguel R. Branco
- Centre for Genomics and Child Health, Blizard Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Erica D. Watson
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Physiology, Development, and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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7
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Zhang W, Luo P, Liu X, Cheng R, Zhang S, Qian X, Liu F. Roles of Fibroblast Growth Factors in the Axon Guidance. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10292. [PMID: 37373438 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241210292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) have been widely studied by virtue of their ability to regulate many essential cellular activities, including proliferation, survival, migration, differentiation and metabolism. Recently, these molecules have emerged as the key components in forming the intricate connections within the nervous system. FGF and FGF receptor (FGFR) signaling pathways play important roles in axon guidance as axons navigate toward their synaptic targets. This review offers a current account of axonal navigation functions performed by FGFs, which operate as chemoattractants and/or chemorepellents in different circumstances. Meanwhile, detailed mechanisms behind the axon guidance process are elaborated, which are related to intracellular signaling integration and cytoskeleton dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiyun Zhang
- Queen Mary School, Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330000, China
- Medical Experimental Teaching Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China
| | - Peiyi Luo
- Queen Mary School, Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330000, China
| | - Xiaohan Liu
- Department of General Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, China
| | - Ruoxi Cheng
- Queen Mary School, Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330000, China
| | - Shuxian Zhang
- Queen Mary School, Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330000, China
| | - Xiao Qian
- Queen Mary School, Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330000, China
| | - Fang Liu
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China
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8
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Lowenstein ED, Cui K, Hernandez-Miranda LR. Regulation of early cerebellar development. FEBS J 2023; 290:2786-2804. [PMID: 35262281 DOI: 10.1111/febs.16426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The study of cerebellar development has been at the forefront of neuroscience since the pioneering work of Wilhelm His Sr., Santiago Ramón y Cajal and many others since the 19th century. They laid the foundation to identify the circuitry of the cerebellum, already revealing its stereotypic three-layered cortex and discerning several of its neuronal components. Their work was fundamental in the acceptance of the neuron doctrine, which acknowledges the key role of individual neurons in forming the basic units of the nervous system. Increasing evidence shows that the cerebellum performs a variety of homeostatic and higher order neuronal functions beyond the mere control of motor behaviour. Over the last three decades, many studies have revealed the molecular machinery that regulates distinct aspects of cerebellar development, from the establishment of a cerebellar anlage in the posterior brain to the identification of cerebellar neuron diversity at the single cell level. In this review, we focus on summarizing our current knowledge on early cerebellar development with a particular emphasis on the molecular determinants that secure neuron specification and contribute to the diversity of cerebellar neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ke Cui
- Institut für Zell- and Neurobiologie, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany
| | - Luis Rodrigo Hernandez-Miranda
- Institut für Zell- and Neurobiologie, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany
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9
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Zhou J, Yang YJ, Gan RH, Wang Y, Li Z, Zhang XJ, Gui JF, Zhou L. Foxl2a and Foxl2b are involved in midbrain-hindbrain boundary development in zebrafish. Gene Expr Patterns 2022; 46:119286. [PMID: 36341978 DOI: 10.1016/j.gep.2022.119286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Foxl2 plays conserved central function in ovarian differentiation and maintenance in several fish species. However, its expression pattern and function in fish embryogenesis are still largely unknown. In this study, we first presented a sequential expression pattern of zebrafish foxl2a and foxl2b during embryo development. They were predominantly expressed in the cranial paraxial mesoderm (CPM) and cranial venous vasculature (CVV) during somitogenesis and subsequently expressed in the pharyngeal arches after 48 h post-fertilization (hpf). Then, we compared the brain structures among zebrafish wildtype (WT) and three homozygous foxl2 mutants (foxl2a-/-, foxl2b-/- and foxl2a-/-;foxl2b-/-) and found the reduction of the fourth ventricle in the three foxl2 mutants, especially in foxl2a-/-;foxl2b-/- mutant. Finally, we detected several key transcription factors involved in the gene regulatory network of midbrain-hindbrain boundary (MHB) patterning, such as wnt1, en1b and pax2a. Their expression levels were obviously downregulated in MHB of foxl2a-/- and foxl2a-/-;foxl2b-/- mutants. Thus, we suggest that Foxl2a and Foxl2b are involved in MHB and the fourth ventricle development in zebrafish. The current study provides insights into the molecular mechanism underlying development of brain ventricular system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, The Innovation Academy of Seed Design, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yan-Jing Yang
- College of Fisheries, Tianjin Agricultural University, China
| | - Rui-Hai Gan
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, The Innovation Academy of Seed Design, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, The Innovation Academy of Seed Design, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, The Innovation Academy of Seed Design, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao-Juan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, The Innovation Academy of Seed Design, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jian-Fang Gui
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, The Innovation Academy of Seed Design, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
| | - Li Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, The Innovation Academy of Seed Design, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
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10
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Xia Y, Cui K, Alonso A, Lowenstein ED, Hernandez-Miranda LR. Transcription factors regulating the specification of brainstem respiratory neurons. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:1072475. [PMID: 36523603 PMCID: PMC9745097 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.1072475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Breathing (or respiration) is an unconscious and complex motor behavior which neuronal drive emerges from the brainstem. In simplistic terms, respiratory motor activity comprises two phases, inspiration (uptake of oxygen, O2) and expiration (release of carbon dioxide, CO2). Breathing is not rigid, but instead highly adaptable to external and internal physiological demands of the organism. The neurons that generate, monitor, and adjust breathing patterns locate to two major brainstem structures, the pons and medulla oblongata. Extensive research over the last three decades has begun to identify the developmental origins of most brainstem neurons that control different aspects of breathing. This research has also elucidated the transcriptional control that secures the specification of brainstem respiratory neurons. In this review, we aim to summarize our current knowledge on the transcriptional regulation that operates during the specification of respiratory neurons, and we will highlight the cell lineages that contribute to the central respiratory circuit. Lastly, we will discuss on genetic disturbances altering transcription factor regulation and their impact in hypoventilation disorders in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiling Xia
- The Brainstem Group, Institute for Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ke Cui
- The Brainstem Group, Institute for Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Antonia Alonso
- Functional Genoarchitecture and Neurobiology Groups, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB-Arrixaca), Murcia, Spain
- Department of Human Anatomy and Psychobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Elijah D. Lowenstein
- Developmental Biology/Signal Transduction, Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Luis R. Hernandez-Miranda
- The Brainstem Group, Institute for Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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11
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Glover JC, Fritzsch B. Molecular mechanisms governing development of the hindbrain choroid plexus and auditory projection: A validation of the seminal observations of Wilhelm His. IBRO Neurosci Rep 2022; 13:306-313. [PMID: 36247525 PMCID: PMC9561746 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibneur.2022.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies by His from 1868 to 1904 delineated the critical role of the dorsal roof plate in the development of the hindbrain choroid plexus, and of the rhombic lips in the development of hindbrain auditory centers. Modern molecular studies have confirmed these observations and placed them in a mechanistic context. Expression of the transcription factor Lmx1a/b is crucial to the development of the hindbrain choroid plexus, and also regulates the expression of Atoh1, a transcription factor that is essential for the formation of the cochlear hair cells and auditory nuclei. By contrast, development of the vestibular hair cells, vestibular ganglion and vestibular nuclei does not depend on Lmx1a/b. These findings demonstrate a common dependence on a specific gene for the hindbrain choroid plexus and the primary auditory projection from hair cells to sensory neurons to hindbrain nuclei. Thus, His' conclusions regarding the origins of specific hindbrain structures are borne out by molecular genetic experiments conducted more than a hundred years later.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel C. Glover
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Norwegian Center for Stem Cell Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Corresponding author at: Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Bernd Fritzsch
- Department of Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa, IA 52242, USA
- Corresponding author.
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12
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Functional Roles of FGF Signaling in Early Development of Vertebrate Embryos. Cells 2021; 10:cells10082148. [PMID: 34440915 PMCID: PMC8391977 DOI: 10.3390/cells10082148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) comprise a large family of growth factors, regulating diverse biological processes including cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. Each FGF binds to a set of FGF receptors to initiate certain intracellular signaling molecules. Accumulated evidence suggests that in early development and adult state of vertebrates, FGFs also play exclusive and context dependent roles. Although FGFs have been the focus of research for therapeutic approaches in cancer, cardiovascular disease, and metabolic syndrome, in this review, we mainly focused on their role in germ layer specification and axis patterning during early vertebrate embryogenesis. We discussed the functional roles of FGFs and their interacting partners as part of the gene regulatory network for germ layer specification, dorsal-ventral (DV), and anterior-posterior (AP) patterning. Finally, we briefly reviewed the regulatory molecules and pharmacological agents discovered that may allow modulation of FGF signaling in research.
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13
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Ratzan EM, Moon AM, Deans MR. Fgf8 genetic labeling reveals the early specification of vestibular hair cell type in mouse utricle. Development 2020; 147:dev.192849. [PMID: 33046506 DOI: 10.1242/dev.192849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
FGF8 signaling plays diverse roles in inner ear development, acting at multiple stages from otic placode induction to cellular differentiation in the organ of Corti. As a secreted morphogen with diverse functions, Fgf8 expression is likely to be spatially restricted and temporally dynamic throughout inner ear development. We evaluated these characteristics using genetic labeling mediated by Fgf8 mcm gene-targeted mice and determined that Fgf8 expression is a specific and early marker of Type-I vestibular hair cell identity. Fgf8 mcm expression initiates at E11.5 in the future striolar region of the utricle, labeling hair cells following EdU birthdating, and demonstrates that sub-type identity is determined shortly after terminal mitosis. This early fate specification is not apparent using markers or morphological criteria that are not present before birth in the mouse. Although analyses of Fgf8 conditional knockout mice did not reveal developmental phenotypes, the restricted pattern of Fgf8 expression suggests that functionally redundant FGF ligands may contribute to vestibular hair cell differentiation and supports a developmental model in which Type-I and Type-II hair cells develop in parallel rather than from an intermediate precursor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan M Ratzan
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA.,Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Anne M Moon
- Departments of Molecular and Functional Genomics and Pediatrics, Weis Center for Research, Geisinger Clinic and Geisinger Commonwealth School of Medicine, Danville, PA 17822, USA.,Departments of Pediatrics and Human Genetics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112 USA
| | - Michael R Deans
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA .,Department of Surgery, Division of Otolaryngology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA
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14
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Parker HJ, Krumlauf R. A Hox gene regulatory network for hindbrain segmentation. Curr Top Dev Biol 2020; 139:169-203. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2020.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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15
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Jeon K, Kumar D, Conway AE, Park K, Jothi R, Jetten AM. GLIS3 Transcriptionally Activates WNT Genes to Promote Differentiation of Human Embryonic Stem Cells into Posterior Neural Progenitors. Stem Cells 2018; 37:202-215. [PMID: 30376208 DOI: 10.1002/stem.2941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Revised: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Anterior-posterior (A-P) specification of the neural tube involves initial acquisition of anterior fate followed by the induction of posterior characteristics in the primitive anterior neuroectoderm. Several morphogens have been implicated in the regulation of A-P neural patterning; however, our understanding of the upstream regulators of these morphogens remains incomplete. Here, we show that the Krüppel-like zinc finger transcription factor GLI-Similar 3 (GLIS3) can direct differentiation of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) into posterior neural progenitor cells in lieu of the default anterior pathway. Transcriptomic analyses reveal that this switch in cell fate is due to rapid activation of Wingless/Integrated (WNT) signaling pathway. Mechanistically, through genome-wide RNA-Seq, ChIP-Seq, and functional analyses, we show that GLIS3 binds to and directly regulates the transcription of several WNT genes, including the strong posteriorizing factor WNT3A, and that inhibition of WNT signaling is sufficient to abrogate GLIS3-induced posterior specification. Our findings suggest a potential role for GLIS3 in the regulation of A-P specification through direct transcriptional activation of WNT genes. Stem Cells 2018 Stem Cells 2019;37:202-215.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kilsoo Jeon
- Immunity, Inflammation and Disease Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Dhirendra Kumar
- Epigenetics & Stem Cell Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Amanda E Conway
- Epigenetics & Stem Cell Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kyeyoon Park
- NIH Stem Cell Unit, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Raja Jothi
- Epigenetics & Stem Cell Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Anton M Jetten
- Immunity, Inflammation and Disease Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
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16
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Radial glia fibers translate Fgf8 morphogenetic signals to generate a thalamic nuclear complex protomap in the mantle layer. Brain Struct Funct 2018; 224:661-679. [PMID: 30470893 PMCID: PMC6420463 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-018-1794-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Thalamic neurons are distributed between different nuclear groups of the thalamic multinuclear complex; they develop topologically ordered specific projections that convey information on voluntary motor programs and sensory modalities to functional areas in the cerebral cortex. Since thalamic neurons present a homogeneous morphology, their functional specificity is derived from their afferent and efferent connectivity. Adequate development of thalamic afferent and efferent connections depends on guide signals that bind receptors in nuclear neuropils and axonal growth cones, respectively. These are finally regulated by regionalization processes in the thalamic neurons, codifying topological information. In this work, we studied the role of Fgf8 morphogenetic signaling in establishing the molecular thalamic protomap, which was revealed by Igsf21, Pde10a and Btbd3 gene expression in the thalamic mantle layer. Fgf8 signaling activity was evidenced by pERK expression in radial glia cells and fibers, which may represent a scaffold that translates neuroepithelial positional information to the mantle layer. In this work, we describe the fact that Fgf8-hypomorphic mice did not express pERK in radial glia cells and fibers and presented disorganized thalamic regionalization, increasing neuronal death in the ventro-lateral thalamus and strong disruption of thalamocortical projections. In conclusion, Fgf8 encodes the positional information required for thalamic nuclear regionalization and the development of thalamocortical projections.
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17
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da Costa MC, Trentin AG, Calloni GW. FGF8 and Shh promote the survival and maintenance of multipotent neural crest progenitors. Mech Dev 2018; 154:251-258. [PMID: 30075227 DOI: 10.1016/j.mod.2018.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Revised: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The developmental mechanisms that control the building of the complex head of vertebrates and particularly, facial skeletogenesis, remain poorly known. Progenitor cells derived from the embryonic neural crest (NC) are the major constituents and players of facial tissue development. Deciphering the cellular and molecular machinery that controls NC cell (NCC) differentiation into bone, cartilage, fat and other mesenchymal tissues, is thus a main issue for understanding vertebrate facial variations. In this work, we investigated the effects of fibroblast growth factor 8 (FGF8) and Sonic Hedgehog (Shh), two signaling molecules essential for craniofacial development, on the in vitro differentiation and multipotentiality of mesencephalic NCCs (MNCCs) isolated from the quail embryo. Comparison of distinct temporal treatments with FGF8 and/or Shh showed that both promoted chondrogenesis of MNCCs by increasing the amount and size of cartilage nodules. Higher rates of chondrogenesis were observed when MNCCs were treated with FGF8 during the migration phase, thus mimicking the in vivo exposure of migrating NCCs to FGF8 secreted by the isthmic brain signaling center. An in vitro cell cloning assay revealed that, after concomitant treatment with FGF8 and Shh, about 80% of NC progenitors displayed chondrogenic potential, while in untreated cultures, only 18% exhibited this potential. In addition, colony analysis showed for the first time the existence of a highly multipotent progenitor able to clonally give rise to adipocytes in addition to other cephalic NC phenotypes (i.e. glial cells, neurons, melanocytes, smooth muscle cells and chondrocytes) (GNMFCA progenitor). This progenitor was observed only when clonal cultures were treated with both FGF8 and Shh. Several other types of multipotent cells, which generated four, five or six distinct phenotypes, accounted for 55% of the progenitors in FGF8 and Shh treated cultures, versus 13,5% in the untreated ones. Together, these data reveal an essential role for both FGF8 and Shh together in maintenance of MNCC multipotentiality by favoring the development of NC progenitors endowed with a broad array of mesectodermal potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meline Coelho da Costa
- Laboratório de Plasticidade e Diferenciação de Células da Crista Neural, Departamento de Biologia Celular, Embriologia e Genética, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Campus Universitário - Trindade, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil; Laboratório de Células Tronco e Regeneração Tecidual, Departamento de Biologia Celular, Embriologia e Genética, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Campus Universitário - Trindade, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Andréa Gonçalves Trentin
- Laboratório de Células Tronco e Regeneração Tecidual, Departamento de Biologia Celular, Embriologia e Genética, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Campus Universitário - Trindade, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Giordano Wosgrau Calloni
- Laboratório de Plasticidade e Diferenciação de Células da Crista Neural, Departamento de Biologia Celular, Embriologia e Genética, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Campus Universitário - Trindade, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil.
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18
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Kim JH, Sim J, Kim HJ. Neural Stem Cell Differentiation Using Microfluidic Device-Generated Growth Factor Gradient. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2018; 26:380-388. [PMID: 29635911 PMCID: PMC6029683 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2018.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2018] [Revised: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 01/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural stem cells (NSCs) have the ability to self-renew and differentiate into multiple nervous system cell types. During embryonic development, the concentrations of soluble biological molecules have a critical role in controlling cell proliferation, migration, differentiation and apoptosis. In an effort to find optimal culture conditions for the generation of desired cell types in vitro, we used a microfluidic chip-generated growth factor gradient system. In the current study, NSCs in the microfluidic device remained healthy during the entire period of cell culture, and proliferated and differentiated in response to the concentration gradient of growth factors (epithermal growth factor and basic fibroblast growth factor). We also showed that overexpression of ASCL1 in NSCs increased neuronal differentiation depending on the concentration gradient of growth factors generated in the microfluidic gradient chip. The microfluidic system allowed us to study concentration-dependent effects of growth factors within a single device, while a traditional system requires multiple independent cultures using fixed growth factor concentrations. Our study suggests that the microfluidic gradient-generating chip is a powerful tool for determining the optimal culture conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hyeon Kim
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Stem Cells, College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiyeon Sim
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Stem Cells, College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Jung Kim
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Stem Cells, College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
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19
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Glover JC, Elliott KL, Erives A, Chizhikov VV, Fritzsch B. Wilhelm His' lasting insights into hindbrain and cranial ganglia development and evolution. Dev Biol 2018; 444 Suppl 1:S14-S24. [PMID: 29447907 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2018.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Revised: 02/03/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Wilhelm His (1831-1904) provided lasting insights into the development of the central and peripheral nervous system using innovative technologies such as the microtome, which he invented. 150 years after his resurrection of the classical germ layer theory of Wolff, von Baer and Remak, his description of the developmental origin of cranial and spinal ganglia from a distinct cell population, now known as the neural crest, has stood the test of time and more recently sparked tremendous advances regarding the molecular development of these important cells. In addition to his 1868 treatise on 'Zwischenstrang' (now neural crest), his work on the development of the human hindbrain published in 1890 provided novel ideas that more than 100 years later form the basis for penetrating molecular investigations of the regionalization of the hindbrain neural tube and of the migration and differentiation of its constituent neuron populations. In the first part of this review we briefly summarize the major discoveries of Wilhelm His and his impact on the field of embryology. In the second part we relate His' observations to current knowledge about the molecular underpinnings of hindbrain development and evolution. We conclude with the proposition, present already in rudimentary form in the writings of His, that a primordial spinal cord-like organization has been molecularly supplemented to generate hindbrain 'neomorphs' such as the cerebellum and the auditory and vestibular nuclei and their associated afferents and sensory organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel C Glover
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Norwegian Center for Stem Cell Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
| | - Karen L Elliott
- Department of Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa, IA 52242, USA
| | - Albert Erives
- Department of Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa, IA 52242, USA
| | - Victor V Chizhikov
- The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Bernd Fritzsch
- Department of Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa, IA 52242, USA.
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20
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Itoyama T, Kawara M, Fukui M, Sugahara Y, Kurokawa D, Kawaguchi M, Kitamura SI, Nakayama K, Murakami Y. Nervous system disruption and swimming abnormality in early-hatched pufferfish (Takifugu niphobles) larvae caused by pyrene is independent of aryl hydrocarbon receptors. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2017; 124:792-797. [PMID: 28259418 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.02.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Revised: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Pyrene, a member of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), contributes to abnormality in the size of the brain and the swimming behavior of pufferfish (Takifugu niphobles) larvae. We hypothesized that the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) may mediate pyrene-induced toxic effects because AHR is assumed to be a candidate for the downstream target of PAHs in many cases. To identify the contribution of AHR on developing pufferfish, we performed exposure experiments using β-naphthoflavone, an agonist of AHR. We found that the toxic effects of pyrene and β-naphthoflavone in pufferfish larvae are fundamentally different. Pyrene specifically induced problems in the developing midbrain and in swimming behavior, while β-naphthoflavone affected the heartbeat rate and the size of the yolk. These results suggest that the behavioral and morphological abnormality caused by pyrene exposure is mediated by an AHR-independent pathway. Alternatively, defects caused by pyrene may be attributed to the inhibition of the FGF signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuya Itoyama
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Moe Kawara
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Makiko Fukui
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Yuki Sugahara
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Daisuke Kurokawa
- Misaki Marine Biological Station, The University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masahumi Kawaguchi
- Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Japan
| | | | - Kei Nakayama
- Center for Marine Environmental Studies, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Yasunori Murakami
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Ehime University, Japan.
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21
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Albuixech-Crespo B, López-Blanch L, Burguera D, Maeso I, Sánchez-Arrones L, Moreno-Bravo JA, Somorjai I, Pascual-Anaya J, Puelles E, Bovolenta P, Garcia-Fernàndez J, Puelles L, Irimia M, Ferran JL. Molecular regionalization of the developing amphioxus neural tube challenges major partitions of the vertebrate brain. PLoS Biol 2017; 15:e2001573. [PMID: 28422959 PMCID: PMC5396861 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2001573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
All vertebrate brains develop following a common Bauplan defined by anteroposterior (AP) and dorsoventral (DV) subdivisions, characterized by largely conserved differential expression of gene markers. However, it is still unclear how this Bauplan originated during evolution. We studied the relative expression of 48 genes with key roles in vertebrate neural patterning in a representative amphioxus embryonic stage. Unlike nonchordates, amphioxus develops its central nervous system (CNS) from a neural plate that is homologous to that of vertebrates, allowing direct topological comparisons. The resulting genoarchitectonic model revealed that the amphioxus incipient neural tube is unexpectedly complex, consisting of several AP and DV molecular partitions. Strikingly, comparison with vertebrates indicates that the vertebrate thalamus, pretectum, and midbrain domains jointly correspond to a single amphioxus region, which we termed Di-Mesencephalic primordium (DiMes). This suggests that these domains have a common developmental and evolutionary origin, as supported by functional experiments manipulating secondary organizers in zebrafish and mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Albuixech-Crespo
- Department of Genetics, School of Biology, and Institut de Biomedicina (IBUB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Laura López-Blanch
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Demian Burguera
- Department of Genetics, School of Biology, and Institut de Biomedicina (IBUB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ignacio Maeso
- Centro Andaluz de Biología del Desarrollo (CSIC/UPO/JA), Sevilla, Spain
| | - Luisa Sánchez-Arrones
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa CSIC-UAM and CIBERER, ISCIII, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Ildiko Somorjai
- The Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, Fife, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | | | - Eduardo Puelles
- Instituto de Neurociencias, UMH-CSIC, Campus de San Juan, Sant Joan d'Alacant, Alicante, Spain
| | - Paola Bovolenta
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa CSIC-UAM and CIBERER, ISCIII, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jordi Garcia-Fernàndez
- Department of Genetics, School of Biology, and Institut de Biomedicina (IBUB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Luis Puelles
- Department of Human Anatomy and Psychobiology, School of Medicine, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
- Institute of Biomedical Research of Murcia (IMIB), Virgen de la Arrixaca University Hospital, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Manuel Irimia
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Luis Ferran
- Department of Human Anatomy and Psychobiology, School of Medicine, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
- Institute of Biomedical Research of Murcia (IMIB), Virgen de la Arrixaca University Hospital, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
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22
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Lin MJ, Lee SJ. Stathmin-like 4 is critical for the maintenance of neural progenitor cells in dorsal midbrain of zebrafish larvae. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36188. [PMID: 27819330 PMCID: PMC5098158 DOI: 10.1038/srep36188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 10/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
A delicate balance between proliferating and differentiating signals is necessary to ensure proper growth and neuronal specification. By studying the developing zebrafish brain, we observed a specific and dynamic expression of a microtubule destabilizer gene, stathmin-like 4 (stmn4), in the dorsal midbrain region. The expression of stmn4 was mutually exclusive to a pan-neuronal marker, elavl3 that indicates its role in regulating neurogenesis. We showed the knockdown or overexpression of stmn4 resulted in premature neuronal differentiation in dorsal midbrain. We also generated stmn4 maternal-zygotic knockout zebrafish by the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Unexpectedly, only less than 10% of stmn4 mutants showed similar phenotypes observed in that of stmn4 morphants. It might be due to the complementation of the increased stmn1b expression observed in stmn4 mutants. In addition, time-lapse recordings revealed the changes in cellular proliferation and differentiation in stmn4 morphants. Stmn4 morphants displayed a longer G2 phase that could be rescued by Cdc25a. Furthermore, the inhibition of Wnt could reduce stmn4 transcripts. These results suggest that the Wnt-mediated Stmn4 homeostasis is crucial for preventing dorsal midbrain from premature differentiation via the G2 phase control during the neural keel stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Ju Lin
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shyh-Jye Lee
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Research Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Center for Systems Biology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Center for Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, 1 Roosevelt Rd., Sec., 4, Taipei, Taiwan
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23
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Dee A, Li K, Heng X, Guo Q, Li JYH. Regulation of self-renewing neural progenitors by FGF/ERK signaling controls formation of the inferior colliculus. Development 2016; 143:3661-3673. [PMID: 27578777 DOI: 10.1242/dev.138537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The embryonic tectum displays an anteroposterior gradient in development and produces the superior colliculus and inferior colliculus. Studies suggest that partition of the tectum is controlled by different strengths and durations of FGF signals originated from the so-called isthmic organizer at the mid/hindbrain junction; however, the underlying mechanism is unclear. We show that deleting Ptpn11, which links FGF with the ERK pathway, prevents inferior colliculus formation by depleting a previously uncharacterized stem cell zone. The stem-zone loss is attributed to shortening of S phase and acceleration of cell cycle exit and neurogenesis. Expression of a constitutively active Mek1 (Mek1DD), the known ERK activator, restores the tectal stem zone and the inferior colliculus without Ptpn11. By contrast, Mek1DD expression fails to rescue the tectal stem zone and the inferior colliculus in the absence of Fgf8 and the isthmic organizer, indicating that FGF and Mek1DD initiate qualitatively and/or quantitatively distinctive signaling. Together, our data show that the formation of the inferior colliculus relies on the provision of new cells from the tectal stem zone. Furthermore, distinctive ERK signaling mediates Fgf8 in the control of cell survival, tissue polarity and cytogenetic gradient during the development of the tectum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Dee
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington, CT 06030-6403, USA
| | - Kairong Li
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington, CT 06030-6403, USA
| | - Xin Heng
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington, CT 06030-6403, USA
| | - Qiuxia Guo
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington, CT 06030-6403, USA
| | - James Y H Li
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington, CT 06030-6403, USA .,Institute for Systems Genomics, School of Medicine, University of Connecticut Health, Farmington, CT 06030, USA
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24
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Epiblast-specific loss of HCF-1 leads to failure in anterior-posterior axis specification. Dev Biol 2016; 418:75-88. [PMID: 27521049 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2016.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Revised: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian Host-Cell Factor 1 (HCF-1), a transcriptional co-regulator, plays important roles during the cell-division cycle in cell culture, embryogenesis as well as adult tissue. In mice, HCF-1 is encoded by the X-chromosome-linked Hcfc1 gene. Induced Hcfc1(cKO/+) heterozygosity with a conditional knockout (cKO) allele in the epiblast of female embryos leads to a mixture of HCF-1-positive and -deficient cells owing to random X-chromosome inactivation. These embryos survive owing to the replacement of all HCF-1-deficient cells by HCF-1-positive cells during E5.5 to E8.5 of development. In contrast, complete epiblast-specific loss of HCF-1 in male embryos, Hcfc1(epiKO/Y), leads to embryonic lethality. Here, we characterize this lethality. We show that male epiblast-specific loss of Hcfc1 leads to a developmental arrest at E6.5 with a rapid progressive cell-cycle exit and an associated failure of anterior visceral endoderm migration and primitive streak formation. Subsequently, gastrulation does not take place. We note that the pattern of Hcfc1(epiKO/Y) lethality displays many similarities to loss of β-catenin function. These results reveal essential new roles for HCF-1 in early embryonic cell proliferation and development.
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25
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Abstract
The fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) family of ligands and receptor tyrosine kinases is required throughout embryonic and postnatal development and also regulates multiple homeostatic functions in the adult. Here, Brewer et al. review the mechanisms of Fgf signaling by focusing on genetic strategies that enable in vivo analysis. The fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) family of ligands and receptor tyrosine kinases is required throughout embryonic and postnatal development and also regulates multiple homeostatic functions in the adult. Aberrant Fgf signaling causes many congenital disorders and underlies multiple forms of cancer. Understanding the mechanisms that govern Fgf signaling is therefore important to appreciate many aspects of Fgf biology and disease. Here we review the mechanisms of Fgf signaling by focusing on genetic strategies that enable in vivo analysis. These studies support an important role for Erk1/2 as a mediator of Fgf signaling in many biological processes but have also provided strong evidence for additional signaling pathways in transmitting Fgf signaling in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Richard Brewer
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, New York 10029, USA
| | - Pierre Mazot
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, New York 10029, USA
| | - Philippe Soriano
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, New York 10029, USA
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Harada H, Sato T, Nakamura H. Fgf8 signaling for development of the midbrain and hindbrain. Dev Growth Differ 2016; 58:437-45. [PMID: 27273073 DOI: 10.1111/dgd.12293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Revised: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we review how midbrain and hindbrain are specified. Otx2 and Gbx2 are expressed from the early phase of development, and their expression abuts at the midbrain hindbrain boundary (MHB), where Fgf8 expression is induced, and functions as an organizing molecule for the midbrain and hindbrain. Fgf8 induces En1 and Pax2 expression at the region where Otx2 is expressed to specify midbrain. Fgf8 activates Ras-ERK pathway to specify hindbrain. Downstream of ERK, Pea3 specifies isthmus (rhombomere 0, r0), and Irx2 may specify r1, where the cerebellum is formed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidekiyo Harada
- Genetics and Development Division, Toronto Krembil Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Tatsuya Sato
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8575, Japan.,Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Harukazu Nakamura
- Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
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27
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Regalado-Santiago C, Juárez-Aguilar E, Olivares-Hernández JD, Tamariz E. Mimicking Neural Stem Cell Niche by Biocompatible Substrates. Stem Cells Int 2016; 2016:1513285. [PMID: 26880934 PMCID: PMC4736764 DOI: 10.1155/2016/1513285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural stem cells (NSCs) participate in the maintenance, repair, and regeneration of the central nervous system. During development, the primary NSCs are distributed along the ventricular zone of the neural tube, while, in adults, NSCs are mainly restricted to the subependymal layer of the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles and the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus. The circumscribed areas where the NSCs are located contain the secreted proteins and extracellular matrix components that conform their niche. The interplay among the niche elements and NSCs determines the balance between stemness and differentiation, quiescence, and proliferation. The understanding of niche characteristics and how they regulate NSCs activity is critical to building in vitro models that include the relevant components of the in vivo niche and to developing neuroregenerative approaches that consider the extracellular environment of NSCs. This review aims to examine both the current knowledge on neurogenic niche and how it is being used to develop biocompatible substrates for the in vitro and in vivo mimicking of extracellular NSCs conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Citlalli Regalado-Santiago
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Veracruzana, Avenida Luis Castelazo Ayala, s/n, 91190 Xalapa, VER, Mexico
| | - Enrique Juárez-Aguilar
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Veracruzana, Avenida Luis Castelazo Ayala, s/n, 91190 Xalapa, VER, Mexico
| | - Juan David Olivares-Hernández
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Veracruzana, Avenida Luis Castelazo Ayala, s/n, 91190 Xalapa, VER, Mexico
| | - Elisa Tamariz
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Veracruzana, Avenida Luis Castelazo Ayala, s/n, 91190 Xalapa, VER, Mexico
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Sherf O, Nashelsky Zolotov L, Liser K, Tilleman H, Jovanovic VM, Zega K, Jukic MM, Brodski C. Otx2 Requires Lmx1b to Control the Development of Mesodiencephalic Dopaminergic Neurons. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0139697. [PMID: 26444681 PMCID: PMC4596855 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Studying the development of mesodiencephalic dopaminergic (mdDA) neurons provides an important basis for better understanding dopamine-associated brain functions and disorders and is critical for establishing cell replacement therapy for Parkinson’s disease. The transcription factors Otx2 and Lmx1b play a key role in the development of mdDA neurons. However, little is known about the genes downstream of Otx2 and Lmx1b in the pathways controlling the formation of mdDA neurons in vivo. Here we report on our investigation of Lmx1b as downstream target of Otx2 in the formation of mdDA neurons. Mouse mutants expressing Otx2 under the control of the En1 promoter (En1+/Otx2) showed increased Otx2 expression in the mid-hindbrain region, resulting in upregulation of Lmx1b and expansion of mdDA neurons there. In contrast, Lmx1b-/- mice showed decreased expression of Otx2 and impairments in several aspects of mdDA neuronal formation. To study the functional interaction between Otx2 and Lmx1b, we generated compound mutants in which Otx2 expression was restored in mice lacking Lmx1b (En1+/Otx2;Lmx1b-/-). In these animals Otx2 was not sufficient to rescue any of the aberrations in the formation of mdDA neurons caused by the loss of Lmx1b, but rescued the loss of ocular motor neurons. Gene expression studies in Lmx1b-/- embryos indicated that in these mutants Wnt1, En1 and Fgf8 expression are induced but subsequently lost in the mdDA precursor domain and the mid-hindbrain organizer in a specific, spatio-temporal manner. In summary, we demonstrate that Otx2 critically depends on Lmx1b for the formation of mdDA neurons, but not for the generation of ocular motor neurons. Moreover, our data suggest that Lmx1b precisely maintains the expression pattern of Wnt1, Fgf8 and En1, which are essential for mid-hindbrain organizer function and the formation of mdDA neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orna Sherf
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’erSheva 84105, Israel
| | - Limor Nashelsky Zolotov
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’erSheva 84105, Israel
| | - Keren Liser
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’erSheva 84105, Israel
| | - Hadas Tilleman
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’erSheva 84105, Israel
| | - Vukasin M. Jovanovic
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’erSheva 84105, Israel
| | - Ksenija Zega
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’erSheva 84105, Israel
| | - Marin M. Jukic
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’erSheva 84105, Israel
| | - Claude Brodski
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’erSheva 84105, Israel
- * E-mail:
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29
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Shao M, Liu C, Song Y, Ye W, He W, Yuan G, Gu S, Lin C, Ma L, Zhang Y, Tian W, Hu T, Chen Y. FGF8 signaling sustains progenitor status and multipotency of cranial neural crest-derived mesenchymal cells in vivo and in vitro. J Mol Cell Biol 2015; 7:441-54. [PMID: 26243590 DOI: 10.1093/jmcb/mjv052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2014] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The cranial neural crest (CNC) cells play a vital role in craniofacial development and regeneration. They are multi-potent progenitors, being able to differentiate into various types of tissues. Both pre-migratory and post-migratory CNC cells are plastic, taking on diverse fates by responding to different inductive signals. However, what sustains the multipotency of CNC cells and derivatives remains largely unknown. In this study, we present evidence that FGF8 signaling is able to sustain progenitor status and multipotency of CNC-derived mesenchymal cells both in vivo and in vitro. We show that augmented FGF8 signaling in pre-migratory CNC cells prevents cell differentiation and organogenesis in the craniofacial region by maintaining their progenitor status. CNC-derived mesenchymal cells with Fgf8 overexpression or control cells in the presence of exogenous FGF8 exhibit prolonged survival, proliferation, and multi-potent differentiation capability in cell cultures. Remarkably, exogenous FGF8 also sustains the capability of CNC-derived mesenchymal cells to participate in organogenesis such as odontogenesis. Furthermore, FGF8-mediated signaling strongly promotes adipogenesis but inhibits osteogenesis of CNC-derived mesenchymal cells in vitro. Our results reveal a specific role for FGF8 in the maintenance of progenitor status and in fate determination of CNC cells, implicating a potential application in expansion and fate manipulation of CNC-derived cells in stem cell-based craniofacial regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiying Shao
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Chao Liu
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
| | - Yingnan Song
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA Southern Center for Biomedical Research, Fujian Key Laboratory of Developmental and Neural Biology, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - Wenduo Ye
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
| | - Wei He
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
| | - Guohua Yuan
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA Hubei-MOST KLOS and KLOBM School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Shuping Gu
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
| | - Congxin Lin
- Division of Dermatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Liang Ma
- Division of Dermatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Yanding Zhang
- Southern Center for Biomedical Research, Fujian Key Laboratory of Developmental and Neural Biology, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - Weidong Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Tao Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - YiPing Chen
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA Southern Center for Biomedical Research, Fujian Key Laboratory of Developmental and Neural Biology, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou 350108, China
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30
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Jahan I, Pan N, Kersigo J, Fritzsch B. Neurog1 can partially substitute for Atoh1 function in hair cell differentiation and maintenance during organ of Corti development. Development 2015. [PMID: 26209643 DOI: 10.1242/dev.123091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Atoh1, a basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor (TF), is essential for the differentiation of hair cells (HCs), mechanotransducers that convert sound into auditory signals in the mammalian organ of Corti (OC). Previous work demonstrated that replacing mouse Atoh1 with the fly ortholog atonal rescues HC differentiation, indicating functional replacement by other bHLH genes. However, replacing Atoh1 with Neurog1 resulted in reduced HC differentiation compared with transient Atoh1 expression in a 'self-terminating' Atoh1 conditional null mouse (Atoh1-Cre; Atoh1(f/f)). We now show that combining Neurog1 in one allele with removal of floxed Atoh1 in a self-terminating conditional mutant (Atoh1-Cre; Atoh1(f/kiNeurog1)) mouse results in significantly more differentiated inner HCs and outer HCs that have a prolonged longevity of 9 months compared with Atoh1 self-terminating littermates. Stereocilia bundles are partially disorganized, disoriented and not HC type specific. Replacement of Atoh1 with Neurog1 maintains limited expression of Pou4f3 and Barhl1 and rescues HCs quantitatively, but not qualitatively. OC patterning and supporting cell differentiation are also partially disrupted. Diffusible factors involved in patterning are reduced (Fgf8) and factors involved in cell-cell interactions are affected (Jag1, Hes5). Despite the presence of many HCs with stereocilia these mice are deaf, possibly owing to HC and OC patterning defects. This study provides a novel approach to disrupt OC development through modulating the HC-specific intracellular TF network. The resulting disorganized OC indicates that normally differentiated HCs act as 'self-organizers' for OC development and that Atoh1 plays a crucial role to initiate HC stereocilia differentiation independently of HC viability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Israt Jahan
- Department of Biology, College of Liberal Arts & Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
| | - Ning Pan
- Department of Biology, College of Liberal Arts & Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
| | - Jennifer Kersigo
- Department of Biology, College of Liberal Arts & Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
| | - Bernd Fritzsch
- Department of Biology, College of Liberal Arts & Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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31
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Jahan I, Pan N, Elliott KL, Fritzsch B. The quest for restoring hearing: Understanding ear development more completely. Bioessays 2015. [PMID: 26208302 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201500044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Neurosensory hearing loss is a growing problem of super-aged societies. Cochlear implants can restore some hearing, but rebuilding a lost hearing organ would be superior. Research has discovered many cellular and molecular steps to develop a hearing organ but translating those insights into hearing organ restoration remains unclear. For example, we cannot make various hair cell types and arrange them into their specific patterns surrounded by the right type of supporting cells in the right numbers. Our overview of the topologically highly organized and functionally diversified cellular mosaic of the mammalian hearing organ highlights what is known and unknown about its development. Following this analysis, we suggest critical steps to guide future attempts toward restoration of a functional organ of Corti. We argue that generating mutant mouse lines that mimic human pathology to fine-tune attempts toward long-term functional restoration are needed to go beyond the hope generated by restoring single hair cells in postnatal sensory epithelia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Israt Jahan
- Department of Biology, CLAS, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Ning Pan
- Department of Biology, CLAS, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Karen L Elliott
- Department of Biology, CLAS, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Bernd Fritzsch
- Department of Biology, CLAS, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
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32
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Ornitz DM, Itoh N. The Fibroblast Growth Factor signaling pathway. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2015; 4:215-66. [PMID: 25772309 PMCID: PMC4393358 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1321] [Impact Index Per Article: 146.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Revised: 11/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The signaling component of the mammalian Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF) family is comprised of eighteen secreted proteins that interact with four signaling tyrosine kinase FGF receptors (FGFRs). Interaction of FGF ligands with their signaling receptors is regulated by protein or proteoglycan cofactors and by extracellular binding proteins. Activated FGFRs phosphorylate specific tyrosine residues that mediate interaction with cytosolic adaptor proteins and the RAS-MAPK, PI3K-AKT, PLCγ, and STAT intracellular signaling pathways. Four structurally related intracellular non-signaling FGFs interact with and regulate the family of voltage gated sodium channels. Members of the FGF family function in the earliest stages of embryonic development and during organogenesis to maintain progenitor cells and mediate their growth, differentiation, survival, and patterning. FGFs also have roles in adult tissues where they mediate metabolic functions, tissue repair, and regeneration, often by reactivating developmental signaling pathways. Consistent with the presence of FGFs in almost all tissues and organs, aberrant activity of the pathway is associated with developmental defects that disrupt organogenesis, impair the response to injury, and result in metabolic disorders, and cancer. For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Ornitz
- Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University School of MedicineSt. Louis, MO, USA
- *
Correspondence to:
| | - Nobuyuki Itoh
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto UniversitySakyo, Kyoto, Japan
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33
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Omi M, Nakamura H. Engrailed and tectum development. Dev Growth Differ 2015; 57:135-45. [DOI: 10.1111/dgd.12197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2014] [Revised: 12/11/2014] [Accepted: 12/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Minoru Omi
- Division of Cell Biology and Neuroscience; Department of Morphological and Physiological Sciences; Faculty of Medical Sciences; University of Fukui; Fukui 910-1193 Japan
| | - Harukazu Nakamura
- Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Science (FRIS); Tohoku University; 6-3, Aramaki aza Aoba, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8578 Japan
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Matthes M, Preusse M, Zhang J, Schechter J, Mayer D, Lentes B, Theis F, Prakash N, Wurst W, Trümbach D. Mouse IDGenes: a reference database for genetic interactions in the developing mouse brain. DATABASE-THE JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL DATABASES AND CURATION 2014; 2014:bau083. [PMID: 25145340 PMCID: PMC4139671 DOI: 10.1093/database/bau083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The study of developmental processes in the mouse and other vertebrates includes the understanding of patterning along the anterior–posterior, dorsal–ventral and medial– lateral axis. Specifically, neural development is also of great clinical relevance because several human neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, autism disorders or drug addiction and also brain malformations are thought to have neurodevelopmental origins, i.e. pathogenesis initiates during childhood and adolescence. Impacts during early neurodevelopment might also predispose to late-onset neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease. The neural tube develops from its precursor tissue, the neural plate, in a patterning process that is determined by compartmentalization into morphogenetic units, the action of local signaling centers and a well-defined and locally restricted expression of genes and their interactions. While public databases provide gene expression data with spatio-temporal resolution, they usually neglect the genetic interactions that govern neural development. Here, we introduce Mouse IDGenes, a reference database for genetic interactions in the developing mouse brain. The database is highly curated and offers detailed information about gene expressions and the genetic interactions at the developing mid-/hindbrain boundary. To showcase the predictive power of interaction data, we infer new Wnt/β-catenin target genes by machine learning and validate one of them experimentally. The database is updated regularly. Moreover, it can easily be extended by the research community. Mouse IDGenes will contribute as an important resource to the research on mouse brain development, not exclusively by offering data retrieval, but also by allowing data input. Database URL:http://mouseidgenes.helmholtz-muenchen.de.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Matthes
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 München, Germany, Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE), Standort München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany and Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-In
| | - Martin Preusse
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 München, Germany, Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE), Standort München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany and Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-In
| | - Jingzhong Zhang
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 München, Germany, Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE), Standort München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany and Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany
| | - Julia Schechter
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 München, Germany, Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE), Standort München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany and Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany
| | - Daniela Mayer
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 München, Germany, Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE), Standort München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany and Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany
| | - Bernd Lentes
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 München, Germany, Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE), Standort München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany and Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany
| | - Fabian Theis
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 München, Germany, Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE), Standort München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany and Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-In
| | - Nilima Prakash
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 München, Germany, Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE), Standort München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany and Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Wurst
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 München, Germany, Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE), Standort München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany and Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-In
| | - Dietrich Trümbach
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 München, Germany, Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE), Standort München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany and Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schillerstr. 44, 80336 München, Germany Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Emil-Ramannstr. 8, 85354 Freising, Germany, Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany, Technische Universität München, Zentrum Mathematik, Boltzmannstr. 3, 85747 Garching, Germany, Max-Planck-In
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Allodi I, Hedlund E. Directed midbrain and spinal cord neurogenesis from pluripotent stem cells to model development and disease in a dish. Front Neurosci 2014; 8:109. [PMID: 24904255 PMCID: PMC4033221 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Induction of specific neuronal fates is restricted in time and space in the developing CNS through integration of extrinsic morphogen signals and intrinsic determinants. Morphogens impose regional characteristics on neural progenitors and establish distinct progenitor domains. Such domains are defined by unique expression patterns of fate determining transcription factors. These processes of neuronal fate specification can be recapitulated in vitro using pluripotent stem cells. In this review, we focus on the generation of dopamine neurons and motor neurons, which are induced at ventral positions of the neural tube through Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling, and defined at anteroposterior positions by fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) 8, Wnt1, and retinoic acid (RA). In vitro utilization of these morphogenic signals typically results in the generation of multiple neuronal cell types, which are defined at the intersection of these signals. If the purpose of in vitro neurogenesis is to generate one cell type only, further lineage restriction can be accomplished by forced expression of specific transcription factors in a permissive environment. Alternatively, cell-sorting strategies allow for selection of neuronal progenitors or mature neurons. However, modeling development, disease and prospective therapies in a dish could benefit from structured heterogeneity, where desired neurons are appropriately synaptically connected and thus better reflect the three-dimensional structure of that region. By modulating the extrinsic environment to direct sequential generation of neural progenitors within a domain, followed by self-organization and synaptic establishment, a reductionist model of that brain region could be created. Here we review recent advances in neuronal fate induction in vitro, with a focus on the interplay between cell intrinsic and extrinsic factors, and discuss the implications for studying development and disease in a dish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilary Allodi
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Eva Hedlund
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet Stockholm, Sweden
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Dyer C, Blanc E, Hanisch A, Roehl H, Otto GW, Yu T, Basson MA, Knight R. A bi-modal function of Wnt signalling directs an FGF activity gradient to spatially regulate neuronal differentiation in the midbrain. Development 2013; 141:63-72. [PMID: 24284206 DOI: 10.1242/dev.099507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
FGFs and Wnts are important morphogens during midbrain development, but their importance and potential interactions during neurogenesis are poorly understood. We have employed a combination of genetic and pharmacological manipulations in zebrafish to show that during neurogenesis FGF activity occurs as a gradient along the anterior-posterior axis of the dorsal midbrain and directs spatially dynamic expression of the Hairy gene her5. As FGF activity diminishes during development, Her5 is lost and differentiation of neuronal progenitors occurs in an anterior-posterior manner. We generated mathematical models to explain how Wnt and FGFs direct the spatial differentiation of neurons in the midbrain through Wnt regulation of FGF signalling. These models suggested that a negative-feedback loop controlled by Wnt is crucial for regulating FGF activity. We tested Sprouty genes as mediators of this regulatory loop using conditional mouse knockouts and pharmacological manipulations in zebrafish. These reveal that Sprouty genes direct the positioning of early midbrain neurons and are Wnt responsive in the midbrain. We propose a model in which Wnt regulates FGF activity at the isthmus by driving both FGF and Sprouty gene expression. This controls a dynamic, posteriorly retracting expression of her5 that directs neuronal differentiation in a precise spatiotemporal manner in the midbrain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlene Dyer
- Craniofacial Development and Stem Cell Biology, King's College London, Guy's Hospital, London SE1 9RT, UK
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Ohnishi T, Shirane M, Hashimoto Y, Saita S, Nakayama KI. Identification and characterization of a neuron-specific isoform of protrudin. Genes Cells 2013; 19:97-111. [PMID: 24251978 DOI: 10.1111/gtc.12109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2013] [Accepted: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Protrudin is a membrane protein that regulates polarized vesicular transport. Now, we have identified a novel isoform of protrudin (protrudin-L) that contains an additional seven amino acids between the FFAT motif and the coiled-coil domain compared with the conventional isoform (protrudin-S) as a result of alternative splicing of a microexon (exon L). Protrudin-L mRNA was found to be mostly restricted to the central nervous system in mice, whereas protrudin-S mRNA was detected in all tissues examined. With the use of a splicing reporter minigene that produces two distinct fluorescent proteins in a manner dependent on the splicing pattern of protrudin transcripts, we found that most neurons express protrudin-L, whereas astrocytes express both protrudin isoforms and oligodendrocytes express only protrudin-S. Protrudin-L associated to a greater extent with vesicle-associated membrane protein-associated protein (VAP) than protrudin-S. Expression of protrudin-L in hippocampal neurons of protrudin-deficient mice also promoted neurite outgrowth more efficiently than protrudin-S. Our results suggest that protrudin-L is a neuron-specific protrudin isoform that promotes axonal elongation and contributes to the establishment of neuronal polarity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takafumi Ohnishi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
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38
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Hulstrand AM, Houston DW. Regulation of neurogenesis by Fgf8a requires Cdc42 signaling and a novel Cdc42 effector protein. Dev Biol 2013; 382:385-99. [PMID: 23994638 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2013.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2013] [Revised: 08/11/2013] [Accepted: 08/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling is required for numerous aspects of neural development, including neural induction, CNS patterning and neurogenesis. The ability of FGFs to activate Ras/MAPK signaling is thought to be critical for these functions. However, it is unlikely that MAPK signaling can fully explain the diversity of responses to FGFs. We have characterized a Cdc42-dependent signaling pathway operating downstream of the Fgf8a splice isoform. We show that a Cdc42 effector 4-like protein (Cdc42ep4-l or Cep4l) has robust neuronal-inducing activity in Xenopus embryos. Furthermore, we find that Cep4l and Cdc42 itself are necessary and sufficient for sensory neurogenesis in vivo. Furthermore, both proteins are involved in Fgf8a-induced neuronal induction, and Cdc42/Cep4l association is promoted specifically by the Fgf8a isoform of Fgf8, but not by Fgf8b, which lacks neuronal inducing activity. Overall, these data suggest a novel role for Cdc42 in an Fgf8a-specific signaling pathway essential for vertebrate neuronal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alissa M Hulstrand
- Department of Biology and Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Genetics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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A short peptide derived from the gN helix domain of FGF8b suppresses the growth of human prostate cancer cells. Cancer Lett 2013; 339:226-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2013.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2012] [Revised: 05/25/2013] [Accepted: 06/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Kasberg AD, Brunskill EW, Steven Potter S. SP8 regulates signaling centers during craniofacial development. Dev Biol 2013; 381:312-23. [PMID: 23872235 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2013.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2013] [Revised: 07/10/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Much of the bone, cartilage and smooth muscle of the vertebrate face is derived from neural crest (NC) cells. During craniofacial development, the anterior neural ridge (ANR) and olfactory pit (OP) signaling centers are responsible for driving the outgrowth, survival, and differentiation of NC populated facial prominences, primarily via FGF. While much is known about the functional importance of signaling centers, relatively little is understood of how these signaling centers are made and maintained. In this report we describe a dramatic craniofacial malformation in mice mutant for the zinc finger transcription factor gene Sp8. At E14.5 they show facial prominences that are reduced in size and underdeveloped, giving an almost faceless phenotype. At later times they show severe midline defects, excencephaly, hyperterlorism, cleft palate, and a striking loss of many NC and paraxial mesoderm derived cranial bones. Sp8 expression was primarily restricted to the ANR and OP regions during craniofacial development. Analysis of an extensive series of conditional Sp8 mutants confirmed the critical role of Sp8 in signaling centers, and not directly in the NC and paraxial mesoderm cells. The NC cells of the Sp8 mutants showed increased levels of apoptosis and decreased cell proliferation, thereby explaining the reduced sizes of the facial prominences. Perturbed gene expression in the Sp8 mutants was examined by laser capture microdissection coupled with microarrays, as well as in situ hybridization and immunostaining. The most dramatic differences included striking reductions in Fgf8 and Fgf17 expression in the ANR and OP signaling centers. We were also able to achieve genetic and pharmaceutical partial rescue of the Sp8 mutant phenotype by reducing Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) signaling. These results show that Sp8 primarily functions to promote Fgf expression in the ANR and OP signaling centers that drive the survival, proliferation, and differentiation of the NC and paraxial mesoderm that make the face.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail D Kasberg
- Division of Developmental Biology, Cincinnati Children's Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
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Lewis AE, Vasudevan HN, O'Neill AK, Soriano P, Bush JO. The widely used Wnt1-Cre transgene causes developmental phenotypes by ectopic activation of Wnt signaling. Dev Biol 2013; 379:229-34. [PMID: 23648512 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2013.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2013] [Revised: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 04/19/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The Wnt1-Cre transgenic mouse line is extensively used in the study of the development of the neural crest and its derivatives and the midbrain. The Wnt1 gene has important developmental roles in formation of the midbrain-hindbrain boundary, regulation of midbrain size, and neurogenesis of ventral midbrain dopaminergic (mDA) neurons. Here, we report that Wnt1-Cre transgenic mice exhibit phenotypes in multiple aspects of midbrain development. Significant expansion of the midbrain and increased proliferation in the developing inferior colliculus is associated with ectopic expression of Wnt1. Marked elevation of Wnt1 expression in the ventral midbrain is correlated with disruption of the differentiation program of ventral mDA neurons. We find that these phenotypes can be attributed to ectopic expression of Wnt1 from the Wnt1-Cre transgene leading to the ectopic activation of canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Since these caveats could complicate the utility of Wnt1-Cre in some developmental circumstances, we report a new Wnt1-Cre2 transgenic mouse line that can serve the same purposes as the original without the associated phenotypic complications. These studies reveal an important caveat to a widely-used reagent, provide an improved version of this reagent, and indicate that the original Wnt1-Cre transgenic mouse line may be useful as a gain of function model for interrogating Wnt signaling mechanisms in multiple aspects of midbrain development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ace E Lewis
- Department of Cell and Tissue Biology, Program in Craniofacial and Mesenchymal Biology and Institute for Human Genetics, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
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Goetz R, Mohammadi M. Exploring mechanisms of FGF signalling through the lens of structural biology. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2013; 14:166-80. [PMID: 23403721 DOI: 10.1038/nrm3528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 398] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) mediate a broad range of functions in both the developing and adult organism. The accumulated wealth of structural information on the FGF signalling pathway has begun to unveil the underlying molecular mechanisms that modulate this system to generate a myriad of distinct biological outputs in development, tissue homeostasis and metabolism. At the ligand and receptor level, these mechanisms include alternative splicing of the ligand (FGF8 subfamily) and the receptor (FGFR1-FGFR3), ligand homodimerization (FGF9 subfamily), site-specific proteolytic cleavage of the ligand (FGF23), and interaction of the ligand and the receptor with heparan sulphate cofactor and Klotho co-receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Goetz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016, USA.
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Abstract
A remarkable finding to emerge in recent years is that the early brain neuroepithelium is highly patterned before axonogenesis begins. Growth factors are among a variety of classes of molecules whose regionalized expression divides the early brain into molecularly distinct domains. Thus, when axons first grow to their synaptic targets, growth factor signalling may help them to navigate. This review discusses recent studies that reveal that growth factors can act as chemoattractants and repellents and that growth factor signalling is important for target entry. These new findings raise the compelling idea that growth factors play an active role in axon navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S McFarlane
- Dept of Anatomy, Neuroscience Research Group, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4
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Cellular programming and reprogramming: sculpting cell fate for the production of dopamine neurons for cell therapy. Stem Cells Int 2012; 2012:412040. [PMID: 22988464 PMCID: PMC3441013 DOI: 10.1155/2012/412040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2012] [Accepted: 07/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Pluripotent stem cells are regarded as a promising cell source to obtain human dopamine neurons in sufficient amounts and purity for cell replacement therapy. Importantly, the success of clinical applications depends on our ability to steer pluripotent stem cells towards the right neuronal identity. In Parkinson disease, the loss of dopamine neurons is more pronounced in the ventrolateral population that projects to the sensorimotor striatum. Because synapses are highly specific, only neurons with this precise identity will contribute, upon transplantation, to the synaptic reconstruction of the dorsal striatum. Thus, understanding the developmental cell program of the mesostriatal dopamine neurons is critical for the identification of the extrinsic signals and cell-intrinsic factors that instruct and, ultimately, determine cell identity. Here, we review how extrinsic signals and transcription factors act together during development to shape midbrain cell fates. Further, we discuss how these same factors can be applied in vitro to induce, select, and reprogram cells to the mesostriatal dopamine fate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clemens Kiecker
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Center for Developmental Neurobiology, King's College, London SE1 1UL, United Kingdom; ,
| | - Andrew Lumsden
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Center for Developmental Neurobiology, King's College, London SE1 1UL, United Kingdom; ,
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Nakagawa Y, Shimogori T. Diversity of thalamic progenitor cells and postmitotic neurons. Eur J Neurosci 2012; 35:1554-62. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.08089.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Gene expression profile of adult human olfactory bulb and embryonic neural stem cell suggests distinct signaling pathways and epigenetic control. PLoS One 2012; 7:e33542. [PMID: 22485144 PMCID: PMC3317670 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2011] [Accepted: 02/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Global gene expression profiling was performed using RNA from human embryonic neural stem cells (hENSC), and adult human olfactory bulb-derived neural stem cells (OBNSCs), to define a gene expression pattern and signaling pathways that are specific for each cell lineage. We have demonstrated large differences in the gene expression profile of human embryonic NSC, and adult human OBNSCs, but less variability between parallel cultures. Transcripts of genes involved in neural tube development and patterning (ALDH1A2, FOXA2), progenitor marker genes (LMX1a, ALDH1A1, SOX10), proliferation of neural progenitors (WNT1 and WNT3a), neuroplastin (NPTN), POU3F1 (OCT6), neuroligin (NLGN4X), MEIS2, and NPAS1 were up-regulated in both cell populations. By Gene Ontology, 325 out of 3875 investigated gene sets were scientifically different. 41 out of the 307 investigated Cellular Component (CC) categories, 45 out of the 620 investigated Molecular Function (MF) categories, and 239 out of the 2948 investigated Biological Process (BP) categories were significant. KEGG Pathway Class Comparison had revealed that 75 out of 171 investigated gene sets passed the 0.005 significance threshold. Levels of gene expression were explored in three signaling pathways, Notch, Wnt, and mTOR that are known to be involved in NS cell fates determination. The transcriptional signature also deciphers the role of genes involved in epigenetic modifications. SWI/SNF DNA chromatin remodeling complex family, including SMARCC1 and SMARCE1, were found specifically up-regulated in our OBNSC but not in hENSC. Differences in gene expression profile of transcripts controlling epigenetic modifications, and signaling pathways might indicate differences in the therapeutic potential of our examined two cell populations in relation to in cell survival, proliferation, migration, and differentiation following engraftments in different CNS insults.
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Paek H, Antoine MW, Diaz F, Hébert JM. Increased β-catenin activity in the anterior neural plate induces ectopic mid-hindbrain characteristics. Dev Dyn 2011; 241:242-6. [PMID: 22102609 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.22787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/03/2011] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The early telencephalon shares molecular features with the early mid-hindbrain region. In particular, these two developing brain areas each have a signaling center that secretes FGFs and an adjacent one that secretes WNTs. WNTs and FGFs each play essential roles in regulating cell fates in both the telencephalon and mid-hindbrain. Despite this similarity, telencephalic and mid-hindbrain precursors express distinct genes and ultimately generate different cell types, tissue morphologies, and neural functions. RESULTS Here we show that genetically increasing the level of β-catenin, a mediator of canonical WNT signaling, in the anterior neural plate causes a loss of telencephalic characteristics and a gain of mid-hindbrain characteristics. CONCLUSION These results, together with previous ones demonstrating that increased WNT signaling in the anterior neural plate increases FGF expression, suggest that the levels of WNT and FGF signaling regulate telencephalic versus mid-hindbrain fates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hunki Paek
- Departments of Neuroscience and Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10464, USA
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Atkinson-Leadbeater K, McFarlane S. Extrinsic factors as multifunctional regulators of retinal ganglion cell morphogenesis. Dev Neurobiol 2011; 71:1170-85. [DOI: 10.1002/dneu.20924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Yu T, Yaguchi Y, Echevarria D, Martinez S, Basson MA. Sprouty genes prevent excessive FGF signalling in multiple cell types throughout development of the cerebellum. Development 2011; 138:2957-68. [PMID: 21693512 DOI: 10.1242/dev.063784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) and regulators of the FGF signalling pathway are expressed in several cell types within the cerebellum throughout its development. Although much is known about the function of this pathway during the establishment of the cerebellar territory during early embryogenesis, the role of this pathway during later developmental stages is still poorly understood. Here, we investigated the function of sprouty genes (Spry1, Spry2 and Spry4), which encode feedback antagonists of FGF signalling, during cerebellar development in the mouse. Simultaneous deletion of more than one of these genes resulted in a number of defects, including mediolateral expansion of the cerebellar vermis, reduced thickness of the granule cell layer and abnormal foliation. Analysis of cerebellar development revealed that the anterior cerebellar neuroepithelium in the early embryonic cerebellum was expanded and that granule cell proliferation during late embryogenesis and early postnatal development was reduced. We show that the granule cell proliferation deficit correlated with reduced sonic hedgehog (SHH) expression and signalling. A reduction in Fgfr1 dosage during development rescued these defects, confirming that the abnormalities are due to excess FGF signalling. Our data indicate that sprouty acts both cell autonomously in granule cell precursors and non-cell autonomously to regulate granule cell number. Taken together, our data demonstrate that FGF signalling levels have to be tightly controlled throughout cerebellar development in order to maintain the normal development of multiple cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Yu
- Department of Craniofacial Development, King's College London, London, UK
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