Disruption of CXCR4 signaling in pharyngeal neural crest cells causes DiGeorge syndrome-like malformations

cxcl12a plays an essential role in pharyngeal cartilage development

Background: Neural crest cells constitute a distinct set of multipotent cells that undergo migration along predefined pathways, culmination in the differentiation into a plethora of cell types, including components of the pharyngeal cartilage. The neurocranium is composite structure derived from both cranial neural crest and mesoderm cells, whereas the pharyngeal skeletal elements-including the mandibular and branchial arches-are exclusively formed by craniofacial neural crest cells. Previous studies have elucidated the critical involvement of the chemokine signaling axis Cxcl12b/Cxcr4a in craniofacial development in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Nonetheless, the function contribution of Cxcl12a and Cxcr4b-the homologous counterparts of Cxcl12b and Cxcr4a-remain largely unexplored. Methods: In the present study, mutant lines for cxcl12a and cxcr4b were generated employing CRISPR/Cas9 system. Temporal and spatial expression patterns of specific genes were assessed using in situ hybridization and dual-color fluorescence in situ hybridization techniques. High-resolution confocal microscopy was utilized for in vivo imaging to detect the pharyngeal arch or pouch patterning. Additionally, cartilage formation within the craniofacial region was analyzed via Alcian blue staining, and the proliferation and apoptosis rates of craniofacial neural crest cells were quantified through BrdU incorporation and TUNEL staining. Results: Our data reveals that the deletion of the chemokine gene cxcl12a results in a marked diminution of pharyngeal cartilage elements, attributable to compromised proliferation of post-migratory craniofacial neural crest cells. Subsequent experiments confirmed that Cxcl12a and Cxcl12b exhibit a synergistic influence on pharyngeal arch and pouch formation. Conclusion: Collectively, the present investigation furnishes compelling empirical evidence supporting the indispensable role of Cxcl2a in craniofacial cartilage morphogenesis, albeit cxcr4b mutants exert a minimal impact on this biological process. We delineate that Cxcl12a is essential for chondrogenesis in zebrafish, primarily by promoting the proliferation of craniofacial neural crest cells. Furthermore, we proposed a conceptual framework wherein Cxcl12a and Cxcl12b function synergistically in orchestrating both the pharyngeal arch and pouch morphogenesis.

CXCR4 and CXCL12 signaling regulates the development of extrinsic innervation to the colorectum

The gastrointestinal tract is innervated by an intrinsic neuronal network, known as the enteric nervous system (ENS), and by extrinsic axons arising from peripheral ganglia. The nerve of Remak (NoR) is an avian-specific sacral neural crest-derived ganglionated structure that extends from the cloaca to the proximal midgut and, similar to the pelvic plexus, provides extrinsic innervation to the distal intestine. The molecular mechanisms controlling extrinsic nerve fiber growth into the gut is unknown. In vertebrates, CXCR4, a cell-surface receptor for the CXCL12 chemokine, regulates migration of neural crest cells and axon pathfinding. We have employed chimeric tissue recombinations and organ culture assays to study the role of CXCR4 and CXCL12 molecules in the development of colorectal innervation. CXCR4 is specifically expressed in nerve fibers arising from the NoR and pelvic plexus, while CXCL12 is localized to the hindgut mesenchyme and enteric ganglia. Overexpression of CXCL12 results in significantly enhanced axonal projections to the gut from the NoR, while CXCR4 inhibition disrupts nerve fiber extension, supporting a previously unreported role for CXCR4 and CXCL12 signaling in extrinsic innervation of the colorectum.

The crucial role of model systems in understanding the complexity of cell signaling in human neurocristopathies

Animal models are useful to study the molecular, cellular, and morphogenetic mechanisms underlying normal and pathological development. Cell-based study models have emerged as an alternative approach to study many aspects of human embryonic development and disease. The neural crest (NC) is a transient, multipotent, and migratory embryonic cell population that generates a diverse group of cell types that arises during vertebrate development. The abnormal formation or development of the NC results in neurocristopathies (NCPs), which are characterized by a broad spectrum of functional and morphological alterations. The impaired molecular mechanisms that give rise to these multiphenotypic diseases are not entirely clear yet. This fact, added to the high incidence of these disorders in the newborn population, has led to the development of systematic approaches for their understanding. In this article, we have systematically reviewed the ways in which experimentation with different animal and cell model systems has improved our knowledge of NCPs, and how these advances might contribute to the development of better diagnostic and therapeutic tools for the treatment of these pathologies. This article is categorized under: Congenital Diseases > Genetics/Genomics/Epigenetics Congenital Diseases > Stem Cells and Development Congenital Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology Neurological Diseases > Genetics/Genomics/Epigenetics.

Clonal analysis and dynamic imaging identify multipotency of individual Gallus gallus caudal hindbrain neural crest cells toward cardiac and enteric fates

Neural crest stem cells arising from caudal hindbrain (often called cardiac and posterior vagal neural crest) migrate long distances to form cell types as diverse as heart muscle and enteric ganglia, abnormalities of which lead to common congenital birth defects. Here, we explore whether individual caudal hindbrain neural crest precursors are multipotent or predetermined toward these particular fates and destinations. To this end, we perform lineage tracing of chick neural crest cells at single-cell resolution using two complementary approaches: retrovirally mediated multiplex clonal analysis and single-cell photoconversion. Both methods show that the majority of these neural crest precursors are multipotent with many clones producing mesenchymal as well as neuronal derivatives. Time-lapse imaging demonstrates that sister cells can migrate in distinct directions, suggesting stochasticity in choice of migration path. Perturbation experiments further identify guidance cues acting on cells in the pharyngeal junction that can influence this choice; loss of CXCR4 signaling results in failure to migrate to the heart but no influence on migration toward the foregut, whereas loss of RET signaling does the opposite. Taken together, the results suggest that environmental influences rather than intrinsic information govern cell fate choice of multipotent caudal hindbrain neural crest cells.

Neural crest stem cells formed from the caudal hindbrain migrate long distances to the heart and gut, but how cell fate is determined is unclear. Here, the authors use multiplex clonal analysis and single-cell photoconversion lineage tracing to show environmental not intrinsic factors affect the cell fate of multipotent caudal hindbrain cells in the chick.

Distinct Expression Patterns of Cxcl12 in Mesenchymal Stem Cell Niches of Intact and Injured Rodent Teeth

Specific stem cell populations within dental mesenchymal tissues guarantee tooth homeostasis and regeneration throughout life. The decision between renewal and differentiation of stem cells is greatly influenced by interactions with stromal cells and extracellular matrix molecules that form the tissue specific stem cell niches. The Cxcl12 chemokine is a general marker of stromal cells and plays fundamental roles in the maintenance, mobilization and migration of stem cells. The aim of this study was to exploit Cxcl12-GFP transgenic mice to study the expression patterns of Cxcl12 in putative dental niches of intact and injured teeth. We showed that endothelial and stromal cells expressed Cxcl12 in the dental pulp tissue of both intact molars and incisors. Isolated non-endothelial Cxcl12⁺ dental pulp cells cultured in different conditions in vitro exhibited expression of both adipogenic and osteogenic markers, thus suggesting that these cells possess multipotent fates. Taken together, our results show that Cxcl12 is widely expressed in intact and injured teeth and highlight its importance as a key component of the various dental mesenchymal stem cell niches.

An atlas of neural crest lineages along the posterior developing zebrafish at single-cell resolution

Neural crest cells (NCCs) are vertebrate stem cells that give rise to various cell types throughout the developing body in early life. Here, we utilized single-cell transcriptomic analyses to delineate NCC-derivatives along the posterior developing vertebrate, zebrafish, during the late embryonic to early larval stage, a period when NCCs are actively differentiating into distinct cellular lineages. We identified several major NCC/NCC-derived cell-types including mesenchyme, neural crest, neural, neuronal, glial, and pigment, from which we resolved over three dozen cellular subtypes. We dissected gene expression signatures of pigment progenitors delineating into chromatophore lineages, mesenchyme cells, and enteric NCCs transforming into enteric neurons. Global analysis of NCC derivatives revealed they were demarcated by combinatorial hox gene codes, with distinct profiles within neuronal cells. From these analyses, we present a comprehensive cell-type atlas that can be utilized as a valuable resource for further mechanistic and evolutionary investigations of NCC differentiation.

The CXCR4/SDF-1 Axis in the Development of Facial Expression and Non-somitic Neck Muscles

Trunk and head muscles originate from distinct embryonic regions: while the trunk muscles derive from the paraxial mesoderm that becomes segmented into somites, the majority of head muscles develops from the unsegmented cranial paraxial mesoderm. Differences in the molecular control of trunk versus head and neck muscles have been discovered about 25 years ago; interestingly, differences in satellite cell subpopulations were also described more recently. Specifically, the satellite cells of the facial expression muscles share properties with heart muscle. In adult vertebrates, neck muscles span the transition zone between head and trunk. Mastication and facial expression muscles derive from the mesodermal progenitor cells that are located in the first and second branchial arches, respectively. The cucullaris muscle (non-somitic neck muscle) originates from the posterior-most branchial arches. Like other subclasses within the chemokines and chemokine receptors, CXCR4 and SDF-1 play essential roles in the migration of cells within a number of various tissues during development. CXCR4 as receptor together with its ligand SDF-1 have mainly been described to regulate the migration of the trunk muscle progenitor cells. This review first underlines our recent understanding of the development of the facial expression (second arch-derived) muscles, focusing on new insights into the migration event and how this embryonic process is different from the development of mastication (first arch-derived) muscles. Other muscles associated with the head, such as non-somitic neck muscles derived from muscle progenitor cells located in the posterior branchial arches, are also in the focus of this review. Implications on human muscle dystrophies affecting the muscles of face and neck are also discussed.

Uncovering the secreted signals and transcription factors regulating the development of mammalian middle ear ossicles

The mammalian middle ear comprises a chain of ossicles, the malleus, incus, and stapes that act as an impedance matching device during the transmission of sound from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear. These ossicles are derived from cranial neural crest cells that undergo endochondral ossification and subsequently differentiate into their final functional forms. Defects that occur during middle ear development can result in conductive hearing loss. In this review, we summarize studies describing the crucial roles played by signaling molecules such as sonic hedgehog, bone morphogenetic proteins, fibroblast growth factors, notch ligands, and chemokines during the differentiation of neural crest into the middle ear ossicles. In addition to these cell-extrinsic signals, we also discuss studies on the function of transcription factor genes such as Foxi3, Tbx1, Bapx1, Pou3f4, and Gsc in regulating the development and morphology of the middle ear ossicles.

Cardiac Neural Crest Cells: Their Rhombomeric Specification, Migration, and Association with Heart and Great Vessel Anomalies

Outflow tract abnormalities are the most frequent congenital heart defects. These are due to the absence or dysfunction of the two main cell types, i.e., neural crest cells and secondary heart field cells that migrate in opposite directions at the same stage of development. These cells directly govern aortic arch patterning and development, ascending aorta dilatation, semi-valvular and coronary artery development, aortopulmonary septation abnormalities, persistence of the ductus arteriosus, trunk and proximal pulmonary arteries, sub-valvular conal ventricular septal/rotational defects, and non-compaction of the left ventricle. In some cases, depending on the functional defects of these cells, additional malformations are found in the expected spatial migratory area of the cells, namely in the pharyngeal arch derivatives and cervico-facial structures. Associated non-cardiovascular anomalies are often underestimated, since the multipotency and functional alteration of these cells can result in the modification of multiple neural, epidermal, and cervical structures at different levels. In most cases, patients do not display the full phenotype of abnormalities, but congenital cardiac defects involving the ventricular outflow tract, ascending aorta, aortic arch and supra-aortic trunks should be considered as markers for possible impaired function of these cells. Neural crest cells should not be considered as a unique cell population but on the basis of their cervical rhombomere origins R3-R5 or R6-R7-R8 and specific migration patterns: R3-R4 towards arch II, R5-R6 arch III and R7-R8 arch IV and VI. A better understanding of their development may lead to the discovery of unknown associated abnormalities, thereby enabling potential improvements to be made to the therapeutic approach.

CXCL12 is required for stirrup-shaped stapes formation during mammalian middle ear development

BACKGROUND

The mammalian middle ear comprises a chain of three ossicles-the malleus, incus, and stapes-each of which has a unique morphology for efficiently transmitting sound information. In particular, the stapes, which is attached to the inner ear, is stirrup-shaped with a head and base connected by two crural arches, forming the stapedial foramen, through which the stapedial artery passes. However, how the stapes acquires this critical stirrup shape for association with the stapedial artery during development is not clear.

RESULTS

C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) is a chemoattractant essential for cellular movement and angiogenesis. In Cxcl12 ^-/- embryos, migration of neural crest cells into the prospective middle ear regions and their mesenchymal condensation to form the three ossicles proceed normally in correct alignment with each other and the inner ear. However, in the absence of CXCL12, the stapes loses its stirrup shape and instead exhibits a columnar shape lacking the crural arches and central hole. In addition, although the stapedial artery initially forms during early mesenchymal condensation of the stapes, it degenerates without CXCL12 function.

CONCLUSION

CXCL12 plays an essential role in establishing the stirrup-shaped architecture of the stapes, possibly by maintaining the stapedial foramen and stapedial artery throughout development.

Innate and Adaptive Immunity Linked to Recognition of Antigens Shared by Neural Crest-Derived Tumors

In the adult, many embryologic processes can be co-opted by during cancer progression. The mechanisms of divisions, migration, and the ability to escape immunity recognition linked to specific embryo antigens are also expressed by malignant cells. In particular, cells derived from neural crests (NC) contribute to the development of multiple cell types including melanocytes, craniofacial cartilage, glia, neurons, peripheral and enteric nervous systems, and the adrenal medulla. This plastic performance is due to an accurate program of gene expression orchestrated with cellular/extracellular signals finalized to regulate long-distance migration, proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and survival. During neurulation, prior to initiating their migration, NC cells must undergo an epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) in which they alter their actin cytoskeleton, lose their cell–cell junctions, apicobasal polarity, and acquire a motile phenotype. Similarly, during the development of the tumors derived from neural crests, comprising a heterogeneous group of neoplasms (Neural crest-derived tumors (NCDTs)), a group of genes responsible for the EMT pathway is activated. Here, retracing the molecular pathways performed by pluripotent cells at the boundary between neural and non-neural ectoderm in relation to the natural history of NCDT, points of contact or interposition are highlighted to better explain the intricate interplay between cancer cells and the innate and adaptive immune response.

Cxcr4 and Sdf-1 are critically involved in the formation of facial and non-somitic neck muscles

The present study shows that the CXCR4/SDF-1 axis regulates the migration of second branchial arch-derived muscles as well as non-somitic neck muscles. Cxcr4 is expressed by skeletal muscle progenitor cells in the second branchial arch (BA2). Muscles derived from the second branchial arch, but not from the first, fail to form in Cxcr4 mutants at embryonic days E13.5 and E14.5. Cxcr4 is also required for the development of non-somitic neck muscles. In Cxcr4 mutants, non-somitic neck muscle development is severely perturbed. In vivo experiments in chicken by means of loss-of-function approach based on the application of beads loaded with the CXCR4 inhibitor AMD3100 into the cranial paraxial mesoderm resulted in decreased expression of Tbx1 in the BA2. Furthermore, disrupting this chemokine signal at a later stage by implanting these beads into the BA2 caused a reduction in MyoR, Myf5 and MyoD expression. In contrast, gain-of-function experiments based on the implantation of SDF-1 beads into BA2 resulted in an attraction of myogenic progenitor cells, which was reflected in an expansion of the expression domain of these myogenic markers towards the SDF-1 source. Thus, Cxcr4 is required for the formation of the BA2 derived muscles and non-somitic neck muscles.

In vivo topology converts competition for cell-matrix adhesion into directional migration

When migrating in vivo, cells are exposed to numerous conflicting signals: chemokines, repellents, extracellular matrix, growth factors. The roles of several of these molecules have been studied individually in vitro or in vivo, but we have yet to understand how cells integrate them. To start addressing this question, we used the cephalic neural crest as a model system and looked at the roles of its best examples of positive and negative signals: stromal-cell derived factor 1 (Sdf1/Cxcl12) and class3-Semaphorins. Here we show that Sdf1 and Sema3A antagonistically control cell-matrix adhesion via opposite effects on Rac1 activity at the single cell level. Directional migration at the population level emerges as a result of global Semaphorin-dependent confinement and broad activation of adhesion by Sdf1 in the context of a biased Fibronectin distribution. These results indicate that uneven in vivo topology renders the need for precise distribution of secreted signals mostly dispensable.

Involvement of CXCR4 in Normal and Abnormal Development

CXC motif chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) is associated with normal and abnormal development, including oncogenesis. The ligand of CXCR4 is stromal cell-derived factor (SDF), also known as CXC motif ligand (CXCL) 12. Through the SDF-1/CXCR4 axis, both homing and migration of hematopoietic (stem) cells are regulated through niches in the bone marrow. Outside of the bone marrow, however, SDF-1 can recruit CXCR4-positive cells from the bone marrow. SDF/CXCR4 has been implicated in the maintenance and/or differentiation of stemness, and tissue-derived stem cells can be associated with SDF-1 and CXCR4 activity. CXCR4 plays a role in multiple pathways involved in carcinogenesis and other pathologies. Here, we summarize reports detailing the functions of CXCR4. We address the molecular signature of CXCR4 and how this molecule and cells expressing it are involved in either normal (maintaining stemness or inducing differentiation) or abnormal (developing cancer and other pathologies) events. As a constituent of stem cells, the SDF-1/CXCR4 axis influences downstream signal transduction and the cell microenvironment.

Region-specific endodermal signals direct neural crest cells to form the three middle ear ossicles

Defects in the middle ear ossicles - malleus, incus and stapes - can lead to conductive hearing loss. During development, neural crest cells (NCCs) migrate from the dorsal hindbrain to specific locations in pharyngeal arch (PA) 1 and 2, to form the malleus-incus and stapes, respectively. It is unclear how migratory NCCs reach their proper destination in the PA and initiate mesenchymal condensation to form specific ossicles. We show that secreted molecules sonic hedgehog (SHH) and bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) emanating from the pharyngeal endoderm are important in instructing region-specific NCC condensation to form malleus-incus and stapes, respectively, in mouse. Tissue-specific knockout of Shh in the pharyngeal endoderm or Smo (a transducer of SHH signaling) in NCCs causes the loss of malleus-incus condensation in PA1 but only affects the maintenance of stapes condensation in PA2. By contrast, knockout of Bmp4 in the pharyngeal endoderm or Smad4 (a transducer of TGFβ/BMP signaling) in the NCCs disrupts NCC migration into the stapes region in PA2, affecting stapes formation. These results indicate that region-specific endodermal signals direct formation of specific middle ear ossicles.

Cellular organization and boundary formation in craniofacial development

Craniofacial morphogenesis is a highly dynamic process that requires changes in the behaviors and physical properties of cells in order to achieve the proper organization of different craniofacial structures. Boundary formation is a critical process in cellular organization, patterning, and ultimately tissue separation. There are several recurring cellular mechanisms through which boundary formation and cellular organization occur including, transcriptional patterning, cell segregation, cell adhesion and migratory guidance. Disruption of normal boundary formation has dramatic morphological consequences, and can result in human craniofacial congenital anomalies. In this review we discuss boundary formation during craniofacial development, specifically focusing on the cellular behaviors and mechanisms underlying the self-organizing properties that are critical for craniofacial morphogenesis.

Endodermal pouch-expressed dmrt2b is important for pharyngeal cartilage formation

Pharyngeal pouches, a series of outpocketings derived from the foregut endoderm, are essential for craniofacial skeleton formation. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying endodermal pouch-regulated head cartilage development are not fully understood. In this study, we find that zebrafish dmrt2b, a gene encoding Doublesex- and Mab-3-related transcription factor, is specifically expressed in endodermal pouches and required for normal pharyngeal cartilage development. Loss of dmrt2b doesn't affect cranial neural crest (CNC) specification and migration, but leads to prechondrogenic condensation defects by reducing cxcl12b expression after CNC cell movement into the pharyngeal arches. Moreover, dmrt2b inactivation results in reduced proliferation and impaired differentiation of CNC cells. We also show that dmrt2b suppresses crossveinless 2 expression in endodermal pouches to maintain BMP/Smad signaling in the arches, thereby facilitating CNC cell proliferation and chondrogenic differentiation. This work provides insight into how transcription factors expressed in endodermal pouches regulate pharyngeal skeleton development through tissue-tissue interactions.

Loss of CXCL12/CXCR4 signalling impacts several aspects of cardiovascular development but does not exacerbate Tbx1 haploinsufficiency

The CXCL12-CXCR4 pathway has crucial roles in stem cell homing and maintenance, neuronal guidance, cancer progression, inflammation, remote-conditioning, cell migration and development. Recently, work in chick suggested that signalling via CXCR4 in neural crest cells (NCCs) has a role in the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS), a disorder where haploinsufficiency of the transcription factor TBX1 is responsible for the major structural defects. We tested this idea in mouse models. Our analysis of genes with altered expression in Tbx1 mutant mouse models showed down-regulation of Cxcl12 in pharyngeal surface ectoderm and rostral mesoderm, both tissues with the potential to signal to migrating NCCs. Conditional mutagenesis of Tbx1 in the pharyngeal surface ectoderm is associated with hypo/aplasia of the 4th pharyngeal arch artery (PAA) and interruption of the aortic arch type B (IAA-B), the cardiovascular defect most typical of 22q11.2DS. We therefore analysed constitutive mouse mutants of the ligand (CXCL12) and receptor (CXCR4) components of the pathway, in addition to ectodermal conditionals of Cxcl12 and NCC conditionals of Cxcr4. However, none of these typical 22q11.2DS features were detected in constitutively or conditionally mutant embryos. Instead, duplicated carotid arteries were observed, a phenotype recapitulated in Tie-2Cre (endothelial) conditional knock outs of Cxcr4. Previous studies have demonstrated genetic interaction between signalling pathways and Tbx1 haploinsufficiency e.g. FGF, WNT, SMAD-dependent. We therefore tested for possible epistasis between Tbx1 and the CXCL12 signalling axis by examining Tbx1 and Cxcl12 double heterozygotes as well as Tbx1/Cxcl12/Cxcr4 triple heterozygotes, but failed to identify any exacerbation of the Tbx1 haploinsufficient arch artery phenotype. We conclude that CXCL12 signalling via NCC/CXCR4 has no major role in the genesis of the Tbx1 loss of function phenotype. Instead, the pathway has a distinct effect on remodelling of head vessels and interventricular septation mediated via CXCL12 signalling from the pharyngeal surface ectoderm and second heart field to endothelial cells.

Choanal atresia and stenosis: Development and diseases of the nasal cavity

Proper craniofacial development in vertebrates depends on growth and fusion of the facial processes during embryogenesis. Failure of any step in this process could lead to craniofacial anomalies such as facial clefting, which has been well studied with regard to its molecular etiology and cellular pathogenesis. Nasal cavity invagination is also a critical event in proper craniofacial development, and is required for the formation of a functional nasal cavity and airway. The nasal cavity must connect the nasopharynx with the primitive choanae to complete an airway from the nostril to the nasopharynx. In contrast to orofacial clefts, defects in nasal cavity and airway formation, such as choanal atresia (CA), in which the connection between the nasal airway and nasopharynx is physically blocked, have largely been understudied. This is also true for a narrowed connection between the nasal cavity and the nasopharynx, which is known as choanal stenosis (CS). CA occurs in approximately 1 in 5,000 live births, and can present in isolation but typically arises as part of a syndrome. Despite the fact that CA and CS usually require immediate intervention, and substantially affect the quality of life of affected individuals, the etiology and pathogenesis of CA and CS have remained elusive. In this review I focus on the process of nasal cavity development with respect to forming a functional airway and discuss the cellular behavior and molecular networks governing this process. Additionally, the etiology of human CA is discussed using examples of disorders which involve CA or CS. This article is categorized under: Signaling Pathways > Cell Fate Signaling Comparative Development and Evolution > Model Systems Birth Defects > Craniofacial and Nervous System Anomalies.

Developmental abnormalities of the otic capsule and inner ear following application of prolyl-hydroxylase inhibitors in chick embryos

BACKGROUND

Naturally hypoxic conditions in amniote embryos play important roles in normal development. We previously showed that a hypoxic condition is required to produce a sufficient amount of neural crest cells (NCCs) during embryogenesis and that promoting a hypoxic response by prolyl-hydroxylase (PHD) inhibitors increases NCCs. Given that PHD inhibitors are considered as a potential treatment for anemia and ischemic diseases, we investigated the phenotypic effect of PHD inhibitors on embryonic development.

METHODS

Chick embryos were administered with PHD inhibitors prior to the induction of NCCs on day 1.5. Three main events relating to hypoxia, NCCs induction, vasculogenesis and chondrogenesis, were examined.

RESULTS

PHD inhibitors caused an increase of Sox10-positive NCCs in vivo. Vasculogenesis was promoted temporarily, although rapid vasculogenesis diminished the effect by day 5 in cephalic and pharyngeal regions. Studies on chondrogenesis at day 7 showed advanced development of the otic capsule, a cartilaginous structure encapsulating the inner ear. Analysis by X-ray micro-computed-tomography (μCT) revealed smaller otic capsule, suggesting premature differentiation. This in turn, deformed the developing semicircular canals within it. Other skeletal structures such as the palate and jaw were unaffected. The localized effect on the otic capsule was considered a result of the multiple effects from the hypoxic responses, increased NCCs and promoted chondrogenesis.

CONCLUSION

Given the wide range of clinical applications being considered for PHD inhibitors, this study provides crucial information to caution and guide use of PHD inhibitors when treating women of childbearing age.

Enteric nervous system development: what could possibly go wrong?

The gastrointestinal tract contains its own set of intrinsic neuroglial circuits - the enteric nervous system (ENS) - which detects and responds to diverse signals from the environment. Here, we address recent advances in the understanding of ENS development, including how neural-crest-derived progenitors migrate into and colonize the bowel, the formation of ganglionated plexuses and the molecular mechanisms of enteric neuronal and glial diversification. Modern lineage tracing and transcription-profiling technologies have produced observations that simultaneously challenge and affirm long-held beliefs about ENS development. We review many genetic and environmental factors that can alter ENS development and exert long-lasting effects on gastrointestinal function, and discuss how developmental defects in the ENS might account for some of the large burden of digestive disease.

CXCL12-CXCR4 signalling plays an essential role in proper patterning of aortic arch and pulmonary arteries

Aims

Chemokine CXCL12 (stromal derived factor 1: SDF1) has been shown to play important roles in various processes of cardiovascular development. In recent avian studies, CXCL12 signalling has been implicated in guidance of cardiac neural crest cells for their participation in the development of outflow tract and cardiac septum. The goal of this study is to investigate the extent to which CXCL12 signalling contribute to the development of aortic arch and pulmonary arteries in mammals.

Methods and results

Novel Cxcl12-LacZ reporter and conditional alleles were generated. Using whole mount X-gal staining with the reporter allele and vascular casting techniques, we show that the domain branching pattern of pulmonary arteries in Cxcl12-null mice is completely disrupted and discordant with that of pulmonary veins and airways. Cxcl12-null mice also displayed abnormal and superfluous arterial branches from the aortic arch. The early steps of pharyngeal arch remodelling in Cxcl12-null mice appeared to be unaffected, but vertebral arteries were often missing and prominent aberrant arteries were present parallel to carotid arteries or trachea, similar to aberrant vertebral artery or thyroid ima artery, respectively. Analysis with computed tomography not only confirmed the results from vascular casting studies but also identified abnormal systemic arterial supply to lungs in the Cxcl12-null mice. Tie2-Cre mediated Cxcr4 deletion phenocopied the Cxcl12-null phenotypes, indicating that CXCR4 is the primary receptor for arterial patterning, whereas Cxcl12 or Cxcr4 deletion by Wnt1-Cre did not affect aortic arch patterning.

Conclusion

CXCL12-CXCR4 signalling is essential for the correct patterning of aortic arches and pulmonary arteries during development. Superfluous arteries in Cxcl12-null lungs and the aortic arch infer a role of CXCL12 in protecting arteries from uncontrolled sprouting during development of the arterial system.

Neural crest delamination and migration: Looking forward to the next 150 years

Neural crest (NC) cells were described for the first time in 1868 by Wilhelm His. Since then, this amazing population of migratory stem cells has been intensively studied. It took a century to fully unravel their incredible abilities to contribute to nearly every organ of the body. Yet, our understanding of the cell and molecular mechanisms controlling their migration is far from complete. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on epithelial-mesenchymal transition and collective behavior of NC cells and propose further stops at which the NC train might be calling in the near future.

The neural crest and evolution of the head/trunk interface in vertebrates

The migration and distribution patterns of neural crest (NC) cells reflect the distinct embryonic environments of the head and trunk: cephalic NC cells migrate predominantly along the dorsolateral pathway to populate the craniofacial and pharyngeal regions, whereas trunk crest cells migrate along the ventrolateral pathways to form the dorsal root ganglia. These two patterns thus reflect the branchiomeric and somitomeric architecture, respectively, of the vertebrate body plan. The so-called vagal NC occupies a postotic, intermediate level between the head and trunk NC. This level of NC gives rise to both trunk- and cephalic-type (circumpharyngeal) NC cells. The anatomical pattern of the amphioxus, a basal chordate, suggests that somites and pharyngeal gills coexist along an extensive length of the body axis, indicating that the embryonic environment is similar to that of vertebrate vagal NC cells and may have been ancestral for vertebrates. The amniote-like condition in which the cephalic and trunk domains are distinctly separated would have been brought about, in part, by anteroposterior reduction of the pharyngeal domain.

The chemokines CXCL12 and CXCL14 differentially regulate connective tissue markers during limb development

Connective tissues (CT) support and connect organs together. Understanding the formation of CT is important, as CT deregulation leads to fibrosis. The identification of CT specific markers has contributed to a better understanding of CT function during development. In developing limbs, Osr1 transcription factor is involved in the differentiation of irregular CT while the transcription factor Scx labels tendon. In this study, we show that the CXCL12 and CXCL14 chemokines display distinct expression pattern in limb CT during chick development. CXCL12 positively regulates the expression of OSR1 and COL3A1, a collagen subtype of irregular CT, while CXCL14 activates the expression of the tendon marker SCX. We provide evidence that the CXCL12 effect on irregular CT involves CXCR4 receptor and vessels. In addition, the expression of CXCL12, CXCL14 and OSR genes is suppressed by the anti-fibrotic BMP signal. Finally, mechanical forces, known to be involved in adult fibrosis, control the expression of chemokines, CT-associated transcription factors and collagens during limb development. Such unexpected roles of CXCL12 and CXCL14 chemokines during CT differentiation can contribute to a better understanding of the fibrosis mechanisms in adult pathological conditions.

Leaders in collective migration: are front cells really endowed with a particular set of skills?

Collective cell migration is the coordinated movement emerging from the interaction of at least two cells. In multicellular organisms, collective cell migration is ubiquitous. During development, embryonic cells often travel in numbers, whereas in adults, epithelial cells close wounds collectively. There is often a division of labour and two categories of cells have been proposed: leaders and followers. These two terms imply that followers are subordinated to leaders whose proposed broad range of actions significantly biases the direction of the group of cells towards a specific target. These two terms are also tied to topology. Leaders are at the front while followers are located behind them. Here, we review recent work on some of the main experimental models for collective cell migration, concluding that leader-follower terminology may not be the most appropriate. It appears that not all collectively migrating groups are driven by cells located at the front. Moreover, the qualities that define leaders (pathfinding, traction forces and matrix remodelling) are not specific to front cells. These observations indicate that the terms leaders and followers are not suited to every case. We think that it would be more accurate to dissociate the function of a cell from its position in the group. The position of cells can be precisely defined with respect to the direction of movement by purely topological terms such as "front" or "rear" cells. In addition, we propose the more ample and strictly functional definition of "steering cells" which are able to determine the directionality of movement for the entire group. In this context, a leader cell represents only a specific case in which a steering cell is positioned at the front of the group.

SDF1-CXCR4 signaling: A new player involved in DiGeorge/22q11-deletion syndrome

The DiGeorge/22q11-deletion syndrome (22q11DS), also known as velocardiofacial syndrome, is a congenital disease causing numerous structural and behavioral disorders, including cardiac outflow tract anomalies, craniofacial dysmorphogenesis, parathyroid and thymus hypoplasia, and mental disorders. It results from a unique chromosomal microdeletion on the 22q11.2 region in which the transcriptional activator TBX1 is decisive for the occurrence of the disease. During embryogenesis, Tbx1 is required for patterning of pharyngeal region giving rise to structures of the face, neck and chest. Genetic and developmental studies demonstrated that the severity and variability of the syndrome are determined by Tbx1 targets involved in pharyngeal neural crest cell migration and survival. Recently, we demonstrated that the chemokine Sdf1/Cxcl12 and its receptor Cxcr4 are genetically downstream of Tbx1 during pharyngeal development and that reduction of CXCR4 signaling results in defects which recapitulate the major morphological anomalies of 22q11DS, supporting the possibility of a pivotal role for the SDF1/CXCR4 axis in its etiology.