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Ehring K, Ehlers SF, Froese J, Gude F, Puschmann J, Grobe K. Two-way Dispatched function in Sonic hedgehog shedding and transfer to high-density lipoproteins. eLife 2024; 12:RP86920. [PMID: 39297609 PMCID: PMC11412720 DOI: 10.7554/elife.86920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling pathway controls embryonic development and tissue homeostasis after birth. This requires regulated solubilization of dual-lipidated, firmly plasma membrane-associated Shh precursors from producing cells. Although it is firmly established that the resistance-nodulation-division transporter Dispatched (Disp) drives this process, it is less clear how lipidated Shh solubilization from the plasma membrane is achieved. We have previously shown that Disp promotes proteolytic solubilization of Shh from its lipidated terminal peptide anchors. This process, termed shedding, converts tightly membrane-associated hydrophobic Shh precursors into delipidated soluble proteins. We show here that Disp-mediated Shh shedding is modulated by a serum factor that we identify as high-density lipoprotein (HDL). In addition to serving as a soluble sink for free membrane cholesterol, HDLs also accept the cholesterol-modified Shh peptide from Disp. The cholesteroylated Shh peptide is necessary and sufficient for Disp-mediated transfer because artificially cholesteroylated mCherry associates with HDL in a Disp-dependent manner, whereas an N-palmitoylated Shh variant lacking C-cholesterol does not. Disp-mediated Shh transfer to HDL is completed by proteolytic processing of the palmitoylated N-terminal membrane anchor. In contrast to dual-processed soluble Shh with moderate bioactivity, HDL-associated N-processed Shh is highly bioactive. We propose that the purpose of generating different soluble forms of Shh from the dual-lipidated precursor is to tune cellular responses in a tissue-type and time-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Ehring
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of MünsterMünsterGermany
| | | | - Jurij Froese
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of MünsterMünsterGermany
| | - Fabian Gude
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of MünsterMünsterGermany
| | - Janna Puschmann
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of MünsterMünsterGermany
| | - Kay Grobe
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of MünsterMünsterGermany
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2
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Lamson DR, Tarpley M, Addo K, Ji X, Abu Rabe D, Ehe B, Hughes M, Smith GR, Daye LR, Musso DL, Zheng W, Williams KP. Identification of small molecule antagonists of sonic hedgehog/heparin binding with activity in hedgehog functional assays. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2024; 1868:130692. [PMID: 39151833 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2024.130692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2024] [Revised: 07/30/2024] [Accepted: 08/07/2024] [Indexed: 08/19/2024]
Abstract
Sonic hedgehog (Shh) is a morphogen with important roles in embryonic development and in the development of a number of cancers. Its activity is modulated by interactions with binding partners and co-receptors including heparin and heparin sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG). To identify antagonists of Shh/heparin binding, a diverse collection of 34,560 chemicals was screened in single point 384-well format. We identified and confirmed twenty six novel small molecule antagonists with diverse structures including four scaffolds that gave rise to multiple hits. Nineteen of the confirmed hits blocked binding of the N-terminal fragment of Shh (ShhN) to heparin with IC50 values < 50 μM. In the Shh-responsive C3H10T1/2 cell model, four of the compounds demonstrated the ability to block ShhN-induced alkaline phosphatase activity. To demonstrate a direct and selective effect on ShhN ligand mediated activity, two of the compounds were able to block induction of Gli1 mRNA, a primary downstream marker for Shh signaling activity, in Shh-mediated but not Smoothened agonist (SAG)-mediated C3H10T1/2 cells. Direct binding of the two compounds to ShhN was confirmed by thermal shift assay and molecular docking simulations, with both compounds docking with the N-terminal heparin binding domain of Shh. Overall, our findings indicate that small molecule compounds that block ShhN binding to heparin and act to inhibit Shh mediated activity in vitro can be identified. We propose that the interaction between Shh and HSPGs provides a novel target for identifying small molecules that bind Shh, potentially leading to novel tool compounds to probe Shh ligand function.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Lamson
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise, USA
| | - Michael Tarpley
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise, USA
| | - Kezia Addo
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise, USA
| | - Xiaojia Ji
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise, USA
| | - Dina Abu Rabe
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise, USA; INBS PhD Program, USA
| | - Ben Ehe
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise, USA
| | - Mark Hughes
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise, USA
| | - Ginger R Smith
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise, USA
| | - Laura R Daye
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise, USA
| | - David L Musso
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise, USA
| | - Weifan Zheng
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA
| | - Kevin P Williams
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA.
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3
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Alotaibi FS, Alsadun MMR, Alsaiari SA, Ramakrishnan K, Yates EA, Fernig DG. Interactions of proteins with heparan sulfate. Essays Biochem 2024:EBC20230093. [PMID: 38646914 DOI: 10.1042/ebc20230093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) is a glycosaminoglycan, polysaccharides that are considered to have arisen in the last common unicellular ancestor of multicellular animals. In this light, the large interactome of HS and its myriad functions in relation to the regulation of cell communication are not surprising. The binding of proteins to HS determines their localisation and diffusion, essential for embryonic development and homeostasis. Following the biosynthesis of the initial heparosan polymer, the subsequent modifications comprise an established canonical pathway and a minor pathway. The more frequent former starts with N-deacetylation and N-sulfation of GlcNAc residues, the latter with C-5 epimerisation of a GlcA residue adjacent to a GlcNAc. The binding of proteins to HS is driven by ionic interactions. The multivalent effect arising from the many individual ionic bonds between a single protein and a polysaccharide chain results in a far stronger interaction than would be expected from an ion-exchange process. In many instances, upon binding, both parties undergo substantial conformational change, the resulting hydrogen and van der Waal bonds contributing significant free energy to the binding reaction. Nevertheless, ionic bonds dominate the protein-polysaccharide interaction kinetically. Together with the multivalent effect, this provides an explanation for the observed trapping of HS-binding proteins in extracellular matrix. Importantly, individual ionic bonds have been observed to be dynamic; breaking and reforming, while the protein remains bound to the polysaccharide. These considerations lead to a model for 1D diffusion of proteins in extracellular matrix on HS, involving mechanisms such as sliding, chain switching and rolling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faizah S Alotaibi
- Department of Biochemistry, Systems and Cell Biology, Institute of Molecular, Integrative and Systems Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, U.K
| | - Marim M R Alsadun
- Department of Biochemistry, Systems and Cell Biology, Institute of Molecular, Integrative and Systems Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, U.K
- Department of Biology, University of Tabuk, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sarah A Alsaiari
- Department of Biochemistry, Systems and Cell Biology, Institute of Molecular, Integrative and Systems Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, U.K
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science, University of Jeddah, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Krithika Ramakrishnan
- Department of Biochemistry, Systems and Cell Biology, Institute of Molecular, Integrative and Systems Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, U.K
| | - Edwin A Yates
- Department of Biochemistry, Systems and Cell Biology, Institute of Molecular, Integrative and Systems Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, U.K
| | - David G Fernig
- Department of Biochemistry, Systems and Cell Biology, Institute of Molecular, Integrative and Systems Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, U.K
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Zhang Y, Beachy PA. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of Hedgehog signalling. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2023; 24:668-687. [PMID: 36932157 DOI: 10.1038/s41580-023-00591-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023]
Abstract
The Hedgehog signalling pathway has crucial roles in embryonic tissue patterning, postembryonic tissue regeneration, and cancer, yet aspects of Hedgehog signal transmission and reception have until recently remained unclear. Biochemical and structural studies surprisingly reveal a central role for lipids in Hedgehog signalling. The signal - Hedgehog protein - is modified by cholesterol and palmitate during its biogenesis, thereby necessitating specialized proteins such as the transporter Dispatched and several lipid-binding carriers for cellular export and receptor engagement. Additional lipid transactions mediate response to the Hedgehog signal, including sterol activation of the transducer Smoothened. Access of sterols to Smoothened is regulated by the apparent sterol transporter and Hedgehog receptor Patched, whose activity is blocked by Hedgehog binding. Alongside these lipid-centric mechanisms and their relevance to pharmacological pathway modulation, we discuss emerging roles of Hedgehog pathway activity in stem cells or their cellular niches, with translational implications for regeneration and restoration of injured or diseased tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunxiao Zhang
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Neuroscience Department, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Philip A Beachy
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
- Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
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Hedgehog is relayed through dynamic heparan sulfate interactions to shape its gradient. Nat Commun 2023; 14:758. [PMID: 36765094 PMCID: PMC9918555 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36450-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Cellular differentiation is directly determined by concentration gradients of morphogens. As a central model for gradient formation during development, Hedgehog (Hh) morphogens spread away from their source to direct growth and pattern formation in Drosophila wing and eye discs. What is not known is how extracellular Hh spread is achieved and how it translates into precise gradients. Here we show that two separate binding areas located on opposite sides of the Hh molecule can interact directly and simultaneously with two heparan sulfate (HS) chains to temporarily cross-link the chains. Mutated Hh lacking one fully functional binding site still binds HS but shows reduced HS cross-linking. This, in turn, impairs Hhs ability to switch between both chains in vitro and results in striking Hh gradient hypomorphs in vivo. The speed and propensity of direct Hh switching between HS therefore shapes the Hh gradient, revealing a scalable design principle in morphogen-patterned tissues.
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Dispatching plasma membrane cholesterol and Sonic Hedgehog dispatch: two sides of the same coin? Biochem Soc Trans 2021; 49:2455-2463. [PMID: 34515747 PMCID: PMC8589413 DOI: 10.1042/bst20210918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Vertebrate and invertebrate Hedgehog (Hh) morphogens signal over short and long distances to direct cell fate decisions during development and to maintain tissue homeostasis after birth. One of the most important questions in Hh biology is how such Hh signaling to distant target cells is achieved, because all Hh proteins are secreted as dually lipidated proteins that firmly tether to the outer plasma membrane leaflet of their producing cells. There, Hhs multimerize into light microscopically visible storage platforms that recruit factors required for their regulated release. One such recruited release factor is the soluble glycoprotein Scube2 (Signal sequence, cubulin domain, epidermal-growth-factor-like protein 2), and maximal Scube2 function requires concomitant activity of the resistance-nodulation-division (RND) transporter Dispatched (Disp) at the plasma membrane of Hh-producing cells. Although recently published cryo-electron microscopy-derived structures suggest possible direct modes of Scube2/Disp-regulated Hh release, the mechanism of Disp-mediated Hh deployment is still not fully understood. In this review, we discuss suggested direct modes of Disp-dependent Hh deployment and relate them to the structural similarities between Disp and the related RND transporters Patched (Ptc) and Niemann-Pick type C protein 1. We then discuss open questions and perspectives that derive from these structural similarities, with particular focus on new findings that suggest shared small molecule transporter functions of Disp to deplete the plasma membrane of cholesterol and to modulate Hh release in an indirect manner.
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Manikowski D, Ehring K, Gude F, Jakobs P, Froese J, Grobe K. Hedgehog lipids: Promotors of alternative morphogen release and signaling?: Conflicting findings on lipidated Hedgehog transport and signaling can be explained by alternative regulated mechanisms to release the morphogen. Bioessays 2021; 43:e2100133. [PMID: 34611914 DOI: 10.1002/bies.202100133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Two posttranslational lipid modifications present on all Hedgehog (Hh) morphogens-an N-terminal palmitate and a C-terminal cholesterol-are established and essential regulators of Hh biofunction. Yet, for several decades, the question of exactly how both lipids contribute to Hh signaling remained obscure. Recently, cryogenic electron microscopy revealed different modes by which one or both lipids may contribute directly to Hh binding and signaling to its receptor Patched1 (Ptc). Some of these modes demand that the established release factor Dispatched1 (Disp) extracts dual-lipidated Hh from the cell surface, and that another known upstream signaling modulator called Scube2 chaperones the dual-lipidated morphogen to Ptc. By mechanistically and biochemically aligning this concept with established in vivo and recent in vitro findings, this reflection identifies remaining questions in lipidated Hh transport and evaluates additional mechanisms of Disp- and Scube2-regulated release of a second bioactive Hh fraction that has one or both lipids removed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Manikowski
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of Münster, Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
| | - Kristina Ehring
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of Münster, Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
| | - Fabian Gude
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of Münster, Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
| | - Petra Jakobs
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of Münster, Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
| | - Jurij Froese
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of Münster, Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
| | - Kay Grobe
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of Münster, Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
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Manikowski D, Kastl P, Schürmann S, Ehring K, Steffes G, Jakobs P, Grobe K. C-Terminal Peptide Modifications Reveal Direct and Indirect Roles of Hedgehog Morphogen Cholesteroylation. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 8:615698. [PMID: 33511123 PMCID: PMC7835520 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.615698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Hedgehog (Hh) morphogens are involved in embryonic development and stem cell biology and, if misregulated, can contribute to cancer. One important post-translational modification with profound impact on Hh biofunction is its C-terminal cholesteroylation during biosynthesis. The current hypothesis is that the cholesterol moiety is a decisive factor in Hh association with the outer plasma membrane leaflet of producing cells, cell-surface Hh multimerization, and its transport and signaling. Yet, it is not decided whether the cholesterol moiety is directly involved in all of these processes, because their functional interdependency raises the alternative possibility that the cholesterol initiates early processes directly and that these processes can then steer later stages of Hh signaling independent of the lipid. We generated variants of the C-terminal Hh peptide and observed that these cholesteroylated peptides variably impaired several post-translational processes in producing cells and Hh biofunction in Drosophila melanogaster eye and wing development. We also found that substantial Hh amounts separated from cholesteroylated peptide tags in vitro and in vivo and that tagged and untagged Hh variants lacking their C-cholesterol moieties remained bioactive. Our approach thus confirms that Hh cholesteroylation is essential during the early steps of Hh production and maturation but also suggests that it is dispensable for Hh signal reception at receiving cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Manikowski
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry and the Cells-in-Motion Cluster of Excellence (EXC1003-CiM), University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Philipp Kastl
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry and the Cells-in-Motion Cluster of Excellence (EXC1003-CiM), University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Sabine Schürmann
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry and the Cells-in-Motion Cluster of Excellence (EXC1003-CiM), University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Kristina Ehring
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry and the Cells-in-Motion Cluster of Excellence (EXC1003-CiM), University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Georg Steffes
- Institute of Neuro- and Behavioral Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Petra Jakobs
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry and the Cells-in-Motion Cluster of Excellence (EXC1003-CiM), University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Kay Grobe
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry and the Cells-in-Motion Cluster of Excellence (EXC1003-CiM), University of Münster, Münster, Germany
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Post-Translational Modification-Dependent Activity of Matrix Metalloproteinases. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20123077. [PMID: 31238509 PMCID: PMC6627178 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20123077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2019] [Revised: 06/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to their capacity to process different proteins of the extracellular matrix (ECM), matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) were initially described as a family of secreted proteases, functioning as main ECM regulators. However, through proteolytic processing of various biomolecules, MMPs also modulate intra- and extracellular pathways and networks. Thereby, they are functionally implicated in the regulation of multiple physiological and pathological processes. Consequently, MMP activity is tightly regulated through a combination of epigenetic, transcriptional, and post-transcriptional control of gene expression, proteolytic activation, post-translational modifications (PTMs), and extracellular inhibition. In addition, MMPs, their substrates and ECM binding partners are frequently modified by PTMs, which suggests an important role of PTMs in modulating the pleiotropic activities of these proteases. This review summarizes the recent progress towards understanding the role of PTMs (glycosylation, phosphorylation, glycosaminoglycans) on the activity of several members of the MMP family.
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Manikowski D, Jakobs P, Jboor H, Grobe K. Soluble Heparin and Heparan Sulfate Glycosaminoglycans Interfere with Sonic Hedgehog Solubilization and Receptor Binding. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24081607. [PMID: 31018591 PMCID: PMC6526471 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24081607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 04/14/2019] [Accepted: 04/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling plays a tumor-promoting role in many epithelial cancers. Cancer cells produce soluble a Shh that signals to distant stromal cells that express the receptor Patched (Ptc). These receiving cells respond by producing other soluble factors that promote cancer cell growth, generating a positive feedback loop. To interfere with reinforced Shh signaling, we examined the potential of defined heparin and heparan sulfate (HS) polysaccharides to block Shh solubilization and Ptc receptor binding. We confirm in vitro and in vivo that proteolytic cleavage of the N-terminal Cardin-Weintraub (CW) amino acid motif is a prerequisite for Shh solubilization and function. Consistent with the established binding of soluble heparin or HS to the Shh CW target motif, both polysaccharides impaired proteolytic Shh processing and release from source cells. We also show that HS and heparin bind to, and block, another set of basic amino acids required for unimpaired Shh binding to Ptc receptors on receiving cells. Both modes of Shh activity downregulation depend more on HS size and overall charge than on specific HS sulfation modifications. We conclude that heparin oligosaccharide interference in the physiological roles of HS in Shh release and reception may be used to expand the field of investigation to pharmaceutical intervention of tumor-promoting Shh functions.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Binding Sites
- Binding, Competitive
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Drosophila Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Drosophila Proteins/chemistry
- Drosophila Proteins/genetics
- Drosophila Proteins/metabolism
- Drosophila melanogaster/genetics
- Drosophila melanogaster/growth & development
- Drosophila melanogaster/metabolism
- Embryo, Nonmammalian
- Feedback, Physiological
- Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental
- HeLa Cells
- Hedgehog Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Hedgehog Proteins/chemistry
- Hedgehog Proteins/genetics
- Hedgehog Proteins/metabolism
- Heparin/chemistry
- Heparin/pharmacology
- Heparitin Sulfate/chemistry
- Heparitin Sulfate/pharmacology
- Humans
- Models, Molecular
- Patched-1 Receptor/genetics
- Patched-1 Receptor/metabolism
- Protein Binding
- Protein Interaction Domains and Motifs
- Protein Structure, Secondary
- Receptors, Cell Surface/genetics
- Receptors, Cell Surface/metabolism
- Signal Transduction
- Solubility
- Wings, Animal/growth & development
- Wings, Animal/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Manikowski
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry and Cells-in-Motion Cluster of Excellence (EXC1003-CiM), University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Petra Jakobs
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry and Cells-in-Motion Cluster of Excellence (EXC1003-CiM), University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Hamodah Jboor
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry and Cells-in-Motion Cluster of Excellence (EXC1003-CiM), University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Kay Grobe
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry and Cells-in-Motion Cluster of Excellence (EXC1003-CiM), University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany.
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