1
|
Rasmussen M, Jin JP. Mechanoregulation and function of calponin and transgelin. BIOPHYSICS REVIEWS 2024; 5:011302. [PMID: 38515654 PMCID: PMC10954348 DOI: 10.1063/5.0176784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
It is well known that chemical energy can be converted to mechanical force in biological systems by motor proteins such as myosin ATPase. It is also broadly observed that constant/static mechanical signals potently induce cellular responses. However, the mechanisms that cells sense and convert the mechanical force into biochemical signals are not well understood. Calponin and transgelin are a family of homologous proteins that participate in the regulation of actin-activated myosin motor activity. An isoform of calponin, calponin 2, has been shown to regulate cytoskeleton-based cell motility functions under mechanical signaling. The expression of the calponin 2 gene and the turnover of calponin 2 protein are both under mechanoregulation. The regulation and function of calponin 2 has physiological and pathological significance, as shown in platelet adhesion, inflammatory arthritis, arterial atherosclerosis, calcific aortic valve disease, post-surgical fibrotic peritoneal adhesion, chronic proteinuria, ovarian insufficiency, and tumor metastasis. The levels of calponin 2 vary in different cell types, reflecting adaptations to specific tissue environments and functional states. The present review focuses on the mechanoregulation of calponin and transgelin family proteins to explore how cells sense steady tension and convert the force signal to biochemical activities. Our objective is to present a current knowledge basis for further investigations to establish the function and mechanisms of calponin and transgelin in cellular mechanoregulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Monica Rasmussen
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida 33101, USA
| | - J.-P. Jin
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60612, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Hsieh TB, Jin JP. Evolution and function of calponin and transgelin. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1206147. [PMID: 37363722 PMCID: PMC10285543 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1206147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Calponin and transgelin (originally named SM22) are homologous cytoskeleton proteins that regulate actin-activated myosin motor functions in smooth muscle contraction and non-muscle cell motility during adhesion, migration, proliferation, phagocytosis, wound healing, and inflammatory responses. They are abundant cytoskeleton proteins present in multiple cell types whereas their physiological functions remain to be fully established. This focused review summarizes the evolution of genes encoding calponin and transgelin and their isoforms and discusses the structural similarity and divergence in vertebrate and invertebrate species in the context of functions in regulating cell motility. As the first literature review focusing on the evolution of the calponin-transgelin family of proteins in relevance to their structure-function relationship, the goal is to outline a foundation of current knowledge for continued investigations to understand the biological functions of calponin and transgelin in various cell types during physiological and pathological processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-Bou Hsieh
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - J.-P. Jin
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Actin crosslinking by α-actinin averts viscous dissipation of myosin force transmission in stress fibers. iScience 2023; 26:106090. [PMID: 36852278 PMCID: PMC9958379 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.106090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Contractile force generated in actomyosin stress fibers (SFs) is transmitted along SFs to the extracellular matrix (ECM), which contributes to cell migration and sensing of ECM rigidity. In this study, we show that efficient force transmission along SFs relies on actin crosslinking by α-actinin. Upon reduction of α-actinin-mediated crosslinks, the myosin II activity induced flows of actin filaments and myosin II along SFs, leading to a decrease in traction force exertion to ECM. The fluidized SFs maintained their cable integrity probably through enhanced actin polymerization throughout SFs. A computational modeling analysis suggested that lowering the density of actin crosslinks caused viscous slippage of actin filaments in SFs and, thereby, dissipated myosin-generated force transmitting along SFs. As a cellular scale outcome, α-actinin depletion attenuated the ECM-rigidity-dependent difference in cell migration speed, which suggested that α-actinin-modulated SF mechanics is involved in the cellular response to ECM rigidity.
Collapse
|
4
|
Comparative roadmaps of reprogramming and oncogenic transformation identify Bcl11b and Atoh8 as broad regulators of cellular plasticity. Nat Cell Biol 2022; 24:1350-1363. [PMID: 36075976 PMCID: PMC9481462 DOI: 10.1038/s41556-022-00986-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Coordinated changes of cellular plasticity and identity are critical for pluripotent reprogramming and oncogenic transformation. However, the sequences of events that orchestrate these intermingled modifications have never been comparatively dissected. Here, we deconvolute the cellular trajectories of reprogramming (via Oct4/Sox2/Klf4/c-Myc) and transformation (via Ras/c-Myc) at the single-cell resolution and reveal how the two processes intersect before they bifurcate. This approach led us to identify the transcription factor Bcl11b as a broad-range regulator of cell fate changes, as well as a pertinent marker to capture early cellular intermediates that emerge simultaneously during reprogramming and transformation. Multiomics characterization of these intermediates unveiled a c-Myc/Atoh8/Sfrp1 regulatory axis that constrains reprogramming, transformation and transdifferentiation. Mechanistically, we found that Atoh8 restrains cellular plasticity, independent of cellular identity, by binding a specific enhancer network. This study provides insights into the partitioned control of cellular plasticity and identity for both regenerative and cancer biology. Huyghe, Furlan et al. compare pluripotent reprogramming with oncogenic transformation and identify Bcl11b and Atoh8 as regulators of cellular plasticity in both processes, thus offering a unifying theory on the factors constraining cell fate changes.
Collapse
|
5
|
She Y, Li C, Jiang T, Lei S, Zhou S, Shi H, Chen R. Knockdown of CNN3 Impairs Myoblast Proliferation, Differentiation, and Protein Synthesis via the mTOR Pathway. Front Physiol 2021; 12:659272. [PMID: 34305633 PMCID: PMC8295729 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.659272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Myogenesis is a complex process that requires optimal outside–in substrate–cell signaling. Calponin 3 (CNN3) plays an important role in regulating myogenic differentiation and muscle regeneration; however, the precise function of CNN3 in myogenesis regulation remains poorly understood. Here, we investigated the role of CNN3 in a knockdown model in the mouse muscle cell line C2C12. Methods Myoblast proliferation, migration, differentiation, fusion, and protein synthesis were examined in CNN3 knockdown C2C12 mouse muscle cells. Involvement of the mTOR pathway in CNN3 signaling was explored by treating cells with the mTOR activator MHY1485. The regulatory mechanisms of CNN3 in myogenesis were further examined by RNA sequencing and subsequent gene ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA). Results During proliferation, CNN3 knockdown caused a decrease in cell proliferation and migration. During differentiation, CNN3 knockdown inhibited myogenic differentiation, fusion, and protein synthesis in C2C12 cells via the AKT/mTOR and AMPK/mTOR pathways; this effect was reversed by MHY1485 treatment. Finally, KEGG and GSEA indicated that the NOD-like receptor signaling pathway is affected in CNN3 knockdown cell lines. Conclusion CNN3 may promote C2C12 cell growth by regulating AKT/mTOR and AMPK/mTOR signaling. The KEGG and GSEA indicated that inhibiting CNN3 may activate several pathways, including the NOD-like receptor pathway and pathways involved in necroptosis, apoptosis, and inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yanling She
- Guangdong Traditional Medical and Sports Injury Rehabilitation Research Institute, Guangdong Second Provincial General Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Cheng Li
- Guangdong Traditional Medical and Sports Injury Rehabilitation Research Institute, Guangdong Second Provincial General Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ting Jiang
- Department of Radiology, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Si Lei
- Guangdong Traditional Medical and Sports Injury Rehabilitation Research Institute, Guangdong Second Provincial General Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shanyao Zhou
- Guangdong Traditional Medical and Sports Injury Rehabilitation Research Institute, Guangdong Second Provincial General Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huacai Shi
- Guangdong Traditional Medical and Sports Injury Rehabilitation Research Institute, Guangdong Second Provincial General Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Rui Chen
- Guangdong Traditional Medical and Sports Injury Rehabilitation Research Institute, Guangdong Second Provincial General Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Abstract
The protein kinase MEKK1 activates stress-signaling pathways in response to various cellular stressors, including chemotherapies that disrupt dynamics of the tubulin cytoskeleton. We show that MEKK1 contains a previously uncharacterized domain that can preferentially bind to the curved tubulin heterodimer—which is found in soluble tubulin and at sites of microtubule assembly and disassembly. Mutations that interfere with MEKK1−tubulin binding disrupt microtubule networks in migrating cells and are enriched in patient-derived tumor sequences. These results suggest that MEKK1−tubulin binding may be relevant to cancer progression, and the efficacy of microtubule-disrupting chemotherapies that require the activity of MEKK1. The MEKK1 protein is a pivotal kinase activator of responses to cellular stress. Activation of MEKK1 can trigger various responses, including mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases, NF-κB signaling, or cell migration. Notably, MEKK1 activity is triggered by microtubule-targeting chemotherapies, among other stressors. Here we show that MEKK1 contains a previously unidentified tumor overexpressed gene (TOG) domain. The MEKK1 TOG domain binds to tubulin heterodimers—a canonical function of TOG domains—but is unusual in that it appears alone rather than as part of a multi-TOG array, and has structural features distinct from previously characterized TOG domains. MEKK1 TOG demonstrates a clear preference for binding curved tubulin heterodimers, which exist in soluble tubulin and at sites of microtubule polymerization and depolymerization. Mutations disrupting tubulin binding decrease microtubule density at the leading edge of polarized cells, suggesting that tubulin binding may play a role in MEKK1 activity at the cellular periphery. We also show that MEKK1 mutations at the tubulin-binding interface of the TOG domain recur in patient-derived tumor sequences, suggesting selective enrichment of tumor cells with disrupted MEKK1–microtubule association. Together, these findings provide a direct link between the MEKK1 protein and tubulin, which is likely to be relevant to cancer cell migration and response to microtubule-modulating therapies.
Collapse
|
7
|
Xia L, Yue Y, Li M, Zhang YN, Zhao L, Lu W, Wang X, Xie X. CNN3 acts as a potential oncogene in cervical cancer by affecting RPLP1 mRNA expression. Sci Rep 2020; 10:2427. [PMID: 32051425 PMCID: PMC7016181 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-58947-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The prognosis of advanced stage cervical cancer is poorer due to cancer invasion and metastasis. Exploring new factors and signalling pathways associated with invasiveness and metastasis would help to identify new therapeutic targets for advanced cervical cancer. We searched the cancer microarray database, Oncomine, and found elevated calponin 3 (CNN3) mRNA expression in cervical cancer tissues. QRT-PCR verified the increased CNN3 expression in cervical cancer compared to para-cancer tissues. Proliferation, migration and invasion assays showed that overexpressed CNN3 promoted the viability and motility of cervical cancer cells, the opposite was observed in CNN3-knockdown cells. In addition, xenografted tumours, established from SiHa cells with CNN3 knockdown, displayed decreased growth and metastasis in vivo. Furthermore, RNA-sequencing showed that ribosomal protein lateral stalk subunit P1 (RPLP1) was a potential downstream gene. Gene function experiments revealed that RPLP1 had the same biological effects as CNN3 did. Rescue experiments demonstrated that the phenotypes inhibited by CNN3 silencing were partly or completely reversed by RPLP1 overexpression. In conclusion, we verified that CNN3 acts as an oncogene to promote the viability and motility of cervical cancer cells in vitro and accelerate the growth and metastasis of xenografted tumours in vivo, by affecting RPLP1 expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lili Xia
- Women's Reproductive Health Laboratory of Zhejiang Province, Women's Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310006, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yongfang Yue
- Women's Reproductive Health Laboratory of Zhejiang Province, Women's Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310006, Zhejiang, China
| | - Mingyue Li
- Women's Reproductive Health Laboratory of Zhejiang Province, Women's Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310006, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ya-Nan Zhang
- Women's Reproductive Health Laboratory of Zhejiang Province, Women's Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310006, Zhejiang, China
| | - Lu Zhao
- Women's Reproductive Health Laboratory of Zhejiang Province, Women's Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310006, Zhejiang, China
| | - Weiguo Lu
- Department of Gynecologic Oncology, Women's Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310006, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Xinyu Wang
- Department of Gynecologic Oncology, Women's Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310006, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Xing Xie
- Department of Gynecologic Oncology, Women's Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310006, Zhejiang, China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Maddala R, Mongan M, Xia Y, Rao PV. Calponin-3 deficiency augments contractile activity, plasticity, fibrogenic response and Yap/Taz transcriptional activation in lens epithelial cells and explants. Sci Rep 2020; 10:1295. [PMID: 31992794 PMCID: PMC6987178 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-58189-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The transparent ocular lens plays a crucial role in vision by focusing light on to the retina with loss of lens transparency leading to impairment of vision. While maintenance of epithelial phenotype is recognized to be essential for lens development and function, knowledge of the identity of different molecular mechanisms regulating lens epithelial characteristics remains incomplete. This study reports that CNN-3, the acidic isoform of calponin, an actin binding contractile protein, is expressed preferentially and abundantly relative to the basic and neutral isoforms of calponin in the ocular lens, and distributes predominantly to the epithelium in both mouse and human lenses. Expression and MEKK1-mediated threonine 288 phosphorylation of CNN-3 is induced by extracellular cues including TGF-β2 and lysophosphatidic acid. Importantly, siRNA-induced deficiency of CNN3 in lens epithelial cell cultures and explants results in actin stress fiber reorganization, stimulation of focal adhesion formation, Yap activation, increases in the levels of α-smooth muscle actin, connective tissue growth factor and fibronectin, and decreases in E-cadherin expression. These results reveal that CNN3 plays a crucial role in regulating lens epithelial contractile activity and provide supporting evidence that CNN-3 deficiency is associated with the induction of epithelial plasticity, fibrogenic activity and mechanosensitive Yap/Taz transcriptional activation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rupalatha Maddala
- Department of Ophthalmology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
| | - Maureen Mongan
- Department of Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, 45267, USA
| | - Ying Xia
- Department of Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, 45267, USA
| | - Ponugoti Vasantha Rao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, 27710, USA. .,Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, 27710, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Nair VA, Al-khayyal NA, Sivaperumal S, Abdel-Rahman WM. Calponin 3 promotes invasion and drug resistance of colon cancer cells. World J Gastrointest Oncol 2019; 11:971-982. [PMID: 31798778 PMCID: PMC6883188 DOI: 10.4251/wjgo.v11.i11.971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 07/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Calponin 3 (CNN3) is an actin-binding protein expressed in smooth muscle and non-smooth muscle cells. It is required for cytoskeletal rearrangement and wound healing.
AIM To dissect the role of CNN3 in carcinogenesis with a focus on colon cancer.
METHODS A total of 20 cancer cell lines (8 breast, 11 colon, and HeLa cervical cancer cell as a positive control for mesenchymal phenotype) and 57 formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded sections from archived sporadic colorectal carcinomas were included in this study. CNN3 expression analysis by western blot or immunohistochemistry was followed by functional analyses. The CNN3 gene was silenced by specific small interfering RNA (commonly known as siRNA), followed by confirmation of the silencing efficiency by western blotting. Then, the silenced cells and control siRNA-transfected cells were analyzed for changes in epithelial and mesenchymal markers, invasion, and response to 5-fluoruracil treatment. We also performed proteomics analysis using a phospho-kinase array-based panel of 45 proteins.
RESULTS CNN3 showed positive expression in 6/8 breast and 9/11 colon cancer lines and in HeLa cells. Interestingly, the colorectal adenocarcinoma line SW480 was negative, while the cell line developed from its matching lymph node metastasis (SW620) was positive for CNN3. CNN3 expression was fairly consistent with the metastatic phenotype in colon cancer because it was absent in one other colon cell line from a primary site and expressed in all others. We selected SW620 for subsequent functional analyses. CNN3-silenced SW620 cells showed a reduction in collagen invasion and loss of mesenchymal markers. CNN3 silencing caused an increase in the SW620 colon cancer cell sensitivity to 5-fluorouracil. Phospho-kinase array-based proteomics analysis showed that CNN3 silencing in SW620 reduced extracellular signal-regulated kinase, β-Catenin, mutant p53, c-Jun, and heat shock protein 60 activities but increased that of checkpoint kinase 2. CNN3 was expressed in 20/57 (35%) colon cancer cases as shown by immunohistochemistry. CNN3 was associated with a decrease in overall survival in colon cancer in silico.
CONCLUSION These results show the involvement of CNN3 in lymph node metastasis and resistance to chemotherapy in colon cancer and suggest that significant oncogenic pathways are involved in these CNN3-related actions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vidhya A Nair
- Environment and Cancer Research Group, Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
| | - Noura A Al-khayyal
- College of Medicine and Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
| | | | - Wael M Abdel-Rahman
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Health Sciences and Environment and Cancer Research Group, Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Ciuba K, Hawkes W, Tojkander S, Kogan K, Engel U, Iskratsch T, Lappalainen P. Calponin-3 is critical for coordinated contractility of actin stress fibers. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17670. [PMID: 30518778 PMCID: PMC6281606 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35948-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Contractile actomyosin bundles, stress fibers, contribute to morphogenesis, migration, and mechanosensing of non-muscle cells. In addition to actin and non-muscle myosin II (NMII), stress fibers contain a large array of proteins that control their assembly, turnover, and contractility. Calponin-3 (Cnn3) is an actin-binding protein that associates with stress fibers. However, whether Cnn3 promotes stress fiber assembly, or serves as either a positive or negative regulator of their contractility has remained obscure. Here, we applied U2OS osteosarcoma cells as a model system to study the function of Cnn3. We show that Cnn3 localizes to both NMII-containing contractile ventral stress fibers and transverse arcs, as well as to non-contractile dorsal stress fibers that do not contain NMII. Fluorescence-recovery-after-photobleaching experiments revealed that Cnn3 is a dynamic component of stress fibers. Importantly, CRISPR/Cas9 knockout and RNAi knockdown studies demonstrated that Cnn3 is not essential for stress fiber assembly. However, Cnn3 depletion resulted in increased and uncoordinated contractility of stress fibers that often led to breakage of individual actomyosin bundles within the stress fiber network. Collectively these results provide evidence that Cnn3 is dispensable for the assembly of actomyosin bundles, but that it is required for controlling proper contractility of the stress fiber network.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Ciuba
- Insitute of Biotechnology, P.O. Box 56, 0014, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - William Hawkes
- School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, E1 4NS, London, UK
- Randall Centre for Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, SE1 1UL, London, UK
| | - Sari Tojkander
- Section of Pathology, Department of Veterinary Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Konstantin Kogan
- Insitute of Biotechnology, P.O. Box 56, 0014, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ulrike Engel
- Nikon Imaging Center at Heidelberg University and Centre for Organismal Studies (COS), Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 267, Heidelberg, 69120, Germany
| | - Thomas Iskratsch
- School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, E1 4NS, London, UK
- Randall Centre for Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, SE1 1UL, London, UK
| | - Pekka Lappalainen
- Insitute of Biotechnology, P.O. Box 56, 0014, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| |
Collapse
|