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Chen T, Liu J, Wang C, Wang Z, Zhou J, Lin J, Mao J, Pan T, Wang J, Xu H, He X, Wu D, Liu Z. ALOX5 contributes to glioma progression by promoting 5-HETE-mediated immunosuppressive M2 polarization and PD-L1 expression of glioma-associated microglia/macrophages. J Immunother Cancer 2024; 12:e009492. [PMID: 39142719 PMCID: PMC11332009 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2024-009492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/30/2024] [Indexed: 08/16/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oxylipin metabolism plays an essential role in glioma progression and immune modulation in the tumor microenvironment. Lipid metabolic reprogramming has been linked to macrophage remodeling, while the understanding of oxylipins and their catalyzed enzymes lipoxygenases in the regulation of glioma-associated microglia/macrophages (GAMs) remains largely unexplored. METHODS To explore the pathophysiological relevance of oxylipin in human glioma, we performed Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-MS/MS (UHPLC-MS/MS) analysis in human glioma and non-tumor brain tissues. To comprehensively investigate the role of arachidonate lipoxygenase 5 (ALOX5) in glioma, we performed in vivo bioluminescent imaging, immunofluorescence staining and flow cytometry analysis on tumors from orthotopic glioma-bearing mice. We developed an ALOX5-targeted nanobody, and tested its anti-glioma efficacy of combination therapy with α-programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1). RESULTS In this study, we found that ALOX5 and its oxylipin 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE) are upregulated in glioma, accumulating programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1)+ M2-GAMs and orchestrating an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Mechanistically, 5-HETE derived from ALOX5-overexpressing glioma cells, promotes GAMs migration, PD-L1 expression, and M2 polarization by facilitating nuclear translocation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2. Additionally, a nanobody targeting ALOX5 is developed that markedly suppresses 5-HETE efflux from glioma cells, attenuates M2 polarization of GAMs, and consequently ameliorates glioma progression. Furthermore, the combination therapy of the ALOX5-targeted nanobody plus α-PD-1 exhibits superior anti-glioma efficacy. CONCLUSIONS Our findings reveal a pivotal role of the ALOX5/5-HETE axis in regulating GAMs and highlight the ALOX5-targeted nanobody as a potential therapeutic agent, which could potentiate immune checkpoint therapy for glioma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Hospital of Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Viral Oncology, The Clinical Innovation & Research Centre, Shenzhen Hospital of Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiangang Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Hospital of Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Chenci Wang
- Department of Oncology, Funan County People's Hospital, Fuyang, Anhui, China
| | - Zhengwei Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin, Guangxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiayi Zhou
- Tomas Lindahl Nobel Laureate Laboratory, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Jiani Lin
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Viral Oncology, The Clinical Innovation & Research Centre, Shenzhen Hospital of Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Mao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Longgang Central Hospital of Shenzhen, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Tingzheng Pan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Hospital of Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianwei Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Hospital of Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongchao Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Hospital of Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaosheng He
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Hospital of Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Dinglan Wu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Viral Oncology, The Clinical Innovation & Research Centre, Shenzhen Hospital of Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhuohao Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Hospital of Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Viral Oncology, The Clinical Innovation & Research Centre, Shenzhen Hospital of Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
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Froehlich T, Jenner A, Cavarischia-Rega C, Fagbadebo FO, Lurz Y, Frecot DI, Kaiser PD, Nueske S, Scholz AM, Schäffer E, Garcia-Saez AJ, Macek B, Rothbauer U. Nanobodies as novel tools to monitor the mitochondrial fission factor Drp1. Life Sci Alliance 2024; 7:e202402608. [PMID: 38816213 PMCID: PMC11140114 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202402608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
In cells, mitochondria undergo constant fusion and fission. An essential factor for fission is the mammalian dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1). Dysregulation of Drp1 is associated with neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson's, cardiovascular diseases and cancer, making Drp1 a pivotal biomarker for monitoring mitochondrial status and potential pathophysiological conditions. Here, we developed nanobodies (Nbs) as versatile binding molecules for proteomics, advanced microscopy and live cell imaging of Drp1. To specifically enrich endogenous Drp1 with interacting proteins for proteomics, we functionalized high-affinity Nbs into advanced capture matrices. Furthermore, we detected Drp1 by bivalent Nbs combined with site-directed fluorophore labelling in super-resolution STORM microscopy. For real-time imaging of Drp1, we intracellularly expressed fluorescently labelled Nbs, so-called chromobodies (Cbs). To improve the signal-to-noise ratio, we further converted Cbs into a "turnover-accelerated" format. With these imaging probes, we visualized the dynamics of endogenous Drp1 upon compound-induced mitochondrial fission in living cells. Considering the wide range of research applications, the presented Nb toolset will open up new possibilities for advanced functional studies of Drp1 in disease-relevant models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Froehlich
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Jenner
- Institute for Genetics and Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Claudia Cavarischia-Rega
- Quantitative Proteomics, Department of Biology, Institute of Cell Biology, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Yannic Lurz
- Center for Plant Molecular Biology (ZMBP), Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Desiree I Frecot
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Philipp D Kaiser
- https://ror.org/03a1kwz48 NMI Natural and Medical Sciences Institute at the University of Tübingen, Reutlingen, Germany
| | - Stefan Nueske
- Livestock Center of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Armin M Scholz
- Livestock Center of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Erik Schäffer
- Center for Plant Molecular Biology (ZMBP), Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ana J Garcia-Saez
- Institute for Genetics and Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- Max Planck Institute of Biophysics, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Boris Macek
- Quantitative Proteomics, Department of Biology, Institute of Cell Biology, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ulrich Rothbauer
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- https://ror.org/03a1kwz48 Cluster of Excellence iFIT (EXC2180) "Image-Guided and Functionally Instructed Tumor Therapies," University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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3
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Tyritidis I, Tsioupros E, Christou P, Koutras N, Morfos V, Nika K. A non-invasive nanobody probe for high precision mapping of Lck spatial distribution. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1440499. [PMID: 39021567 PMCID: PMC11251914 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1440499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024] Open
Abstract
The tyrosine kinase Lck is mandatory for initiating signaling responses downstream the antigenic T cell receptor (TCR). Numerous studies have shown that a prerequisite for efficient and well-balanced Lck regulation and function is its finely orchestrated spatial distribution pattern, especially at the plane of the plasma membrane. There is a wealth of knowledge on Lck localization sites, preference for specialized lipid microenvironments and colocalization partners. However, several questions concerning the spatial organization of its differentially phosphorylated conformers and the dynamics of their juxtaposition in relation to ligated and non-ligated TCRs remain elusive. In this brief report we introduce a non-invasive nanobody-based approach for mapping Lck subcellular allocation with high precision. Our initial data using this methodology, provide insight into the topology of Lck in resting T cells and its confined localization in a strictly delimited environment within the plane of the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Tyritidis
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Evangelos Tsioupros
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Pantelis Christou
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Nikolaos Koutras
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Vasileios Morfos
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Biology III, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Konstantina Nika
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
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4
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Perin P, Cossellu D, Vivado E, Batti L, Gantar I, Voigt FF, Pizzala R. Temporal bone marrow of the rat and its connections to the inner ear. Front Neurol 2024; 15:1386654. [PMID: 38817550 PMCID: PMC11137668 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2024.1386654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Calvarial bone marrow has been found to be central in the brain immune response, being connected to the dura through channels which allow leukocyte trafficking. Temporal bone marrow is thought to play important roles in relation to the inner ear, but is still largely uncharacterized, given this bone complex anatomy. We characterized the geometry and connectivity of rat temporal bone marrow using lightsheet imaging of cleared samples and microCT. Bone marrow was identified in cleared tissue by cellular content (and in particular by the presence of megakaryocytes); since air-filled cavities are absent in rodents, marrow clusters could be recognized in microCT scans by their geometry. In cleared petrosal bone, autofluorescence allowed delineation of the otic capsule layers. Within the endochondral layer, bone marrow was observed in association to the cochlear base and vestibule, and to the cochlear apex. Cochlear apex endochondral marrow (CAEM) was a separated cluster from the remaining endochondral marrow, which was therefore defined as "vestibular endochondral marrow" (VEM). A much larger marrow island (petrosal non-endochondral marrow, PNEM) extended outside the otic capsule surrounding semicircular canal arms. PNEM was mainly connected to the dura, through bone channels similar to those of calvarial bone, and only a few channels were directed toward the canal periosteum. On the contrary, endochondral bone marrow was well connected to the labyrinth through vascular loops (directed to the spiral ligament for CAEM and to the bony labyrinth periosteum for VEM), and to dural sinuses. In addition, CAEM was also connected to the tensor tympani fossa of the middle ear and VEM to the endolymphatic sac. Endochondral marrow was made up of small lobules connected to each other and to other structures by channels lined by elongated macrophages, whereas PNEM displayed larger lobules connected by channels with a sparse macrophage population. Our data suggest that the rat inner ear is surrounded by bone marrow at the junctions with middle ear and brain, most likely with "customs" role, restricting pathogen spread; a second marrow network with different structural features is found within the endochondral bone layer of the otic capsule and may play different functional roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Perin
- Department of Brain and Behaviour Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Daniele Cossellu
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Elisa Vivado
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Laura Batti
- Wyss Center for Bio and Neuro Engineering, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ivana Gantar
- Wyss Center for Bio and Neuro Engineering, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Fabian F. Voigt
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Roberto Pizzala
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
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Solodkov PP, Najakshin AM, Chikaev NA, Kulemzin SV, Mechetina LV, Baranov KO, Guselnikov SV, Gorchakov AA, Belovezhets TN, Chikaev AN, Volkova OY, Markhaev AG, Kononova YV, Alekseev AY, Gulyaeva MA, Shestopalov AM, Taranin AV. Serial Llama Immunization with Various SARS-CoV-2 RBD Variants Induces Broad Spectrum Virus-Neutralizing Nanobodies. Vaccines (Basel) 2024; 12:129. [PMID: 38400113 PMCID: PMC10891761 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines12020129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 mutant variants has posed a significant challenge to both the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 with anti-coronaviral neutralizing antibodies. The latest viral variants demonstrate pronounced resistance to the vast majority of human monoclonal antibodies raised against the ancestral Wuhan variant. Less is known about the susceptibility of the evolved virus to camelid nanobodies developed at the start of the pandemic. In this study, we compared nanobody repertoires raised in the same llama after immunization with Wuhan's RBD variant and after subsequent serial immunization with a variety of RBD variants, including that of SARS-CoV-1. We show that initial immunization induced highly potent nanobodies, which efficiently protected Syrian hamsters from infection with the ancestral Wuhan virus. These nanobodies, however, mostly lacked the activity against SARS-CoV-2 omicron-pseudotyped viruses. In contrast, serial immunization with different RBD variants resulted in the generation of nanobodies demonstrating a higher degree of somatic mutagenesis and a broad range of neutralization. Four nanobodies recognizing distinct epitopes were shown to potently neutralize a spectrum of omicron variants, including those of the XBB sublineage. Our data show that nanobodies broadly neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 variants may be readily induced by a serial variant RBD immunization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel P. Solodkov
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (P.P.S.); (A.M.N.); (N.A.C.); (L.V.M.); (K.O.B.); (S.V.G.); (T.N.B.); (A.N.C.); (O.Y.V.)
| | - Alexander M. Najakshin
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (P.P.S.); (A.M.N.); (N.A.C.); (L.V.M.); (K.O.B.); (S.V.G.); (T.N.B.); (A.N.C.); (O.Y.V.)
| | - Nikolai A. Chikaev
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (P.P.S.); (A.M.N.); (N.A.C.); (L.V.M.); (K.O.B.); (S.V.G.); (T.N.B.); (A.N.C.); (O.Y.V.)
| | - Sergey V. Kulemzin
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (P.P.S.); (A.M.N.); (N.A.C.); (L.V.M.); (K.O.B.); (S.V.G.); (T.N.B.); (A.N.C.); (O.Y.V.)
| | - Ludmila V. Mechetina
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (P.P.S.); (A.M.N.); (N.A.C.); (L.V.M.); (K.O.B.); (S.V.G.); (T.N.B.); (A.N.C.); (O.Y.V.)
| | - Konstantin O. Baranov
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (P.P.S.); (A.M.N.); (N.A.C.); (L.V.M.); (K.O.B.); (S.V.G.); (T.N.B.); (A.N.C.); (O.Y.V.)
| | - Sergey V. Guselnikov
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (P.P.S.); (A.M.N.); (N.A.C.); (L.V.M.); (K.O.B.); (S.V.G.); (T.N.B.); (A.N.C.); (O.Y.V.)
| | - Andrey A. Gorchakov
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (P.P.S.); (A.M.N.); (N.A.C.); (L.V.M.); (K.O.B.); (S.V.G.); (T.N.B.); (A.N.C.); (O.Y.V.)
| | - Tatyana N. Belovezhets
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (P.P.S.); (A.M.N.); (N.A.C.); (L.V.M.); (K.O.B.); (S.V.G.); (T.N.B.); (A.N.C.); (O.Y.V.)
| | - Anton N. Chikaev
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (P.P.S.); (A.M.N.); (N.A.C.); (L.V.M.); (K.O.B.); (S.V.G.); (T.N.B.); (A.N.C.); (O.Y.V.)
| | - Olga Y. Volkova
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (P.P.S.); (A.M.N.); (N.A.C.); (L.V.M.); (K.O.B.); (S.V.G.); (T.N.B.); (A.N.C.); (O.Y.V.)
| | - Alexander G. Markhaev
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, 630117 Novosibirsk, Russia; (A.G.M.); (Y.V.K.); (A.Y.A.); (M.A.G.); (A.M.S.)
| | - Yulia V. Kononova
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, 630117 Novosibirsk, Russia; (A.G.M.); (Y.V.K.); (A.Y.A.); (M.A.G.); (A.M.S.)
| | - Alexander Y. Alekseev
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, 630117 Novosibirsk, Russia; (A.G.M.); (Y.V.K.); (A.Y.A.); (M.A.G.); (A.M.S.)
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Marina A. Gulyaeva
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, 630117 Novosibirsk, Russia; (A.G.M.); (Y.V.K.); (A.Y.A.); (M.A.G.); (A.M.S.)
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Alexander M. Shestopalov
- Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine, 630117 Novosibirsk, Russia; (A.G.M.); (Y.V.K.); (A.Y.A.); (M.A.G.); (A.M.S.)
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Alexander V. Taranin
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (P.P.S.); (A.M.N.); (N.A.C.); (L.V.M.); (K.O.B.); (S.V.G.); (T.N.B.); (A.N.C.); (O.Y.V.)
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Yang C, Lei Y, Ren T, Yao M. The Current Situation and Development Prospect of Whole-Genome Screening. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:658. [PMID: 38203828 PMCID: PMC10779205 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
High-throughput genetic screening is useful for discovering critical genes or gene sequences that trigger specific cell functions and/or phenotypes. Loss-of-function genetic screening is mainly achieved through RNA interference (RNAi), CRISPR knock-out (CRISPRko), and CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) technologies. Gain-of-function genetic screening mainly depends on the overexpression of a cDNA library and CRISPR activation (CRISPRa). Base editing can perform both gain- and loss-of-function genetic screening. This review discusses genetic screening techniques based on Cas9 nuclease, including Cas9-mediated genome knock-out and dCas9-based gene activation and interference. We compare these methods with previous genetic screening techniques based on RNAi and cDNA library overexpression and propose future prospects and applications for CRISPR screening.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Mingze Yao
- Shanxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Medical Molecular Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education and Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China; (C.Y.); (Y.L.); (T.R.)
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