Effect of serotonin on ciliary beating and intracellular calcium concentration in identified populations of embryonic ciliary cells

Signaling Control of Mucociliary Epithelia: Stem Cells, Cell Fates, and the Plasticity of Cell Identity in Development and Disease

Mucociliary epithelia are composed of multiciliated, secretory, and stem cells and line various organs in vertebrates such as the respiratory tract. By means of mucociliary clearance, those epithelia provide a first line of defense against inhaled particles and pathogens. Mucociliary clearance relies on the correct composition of cell types, that is, the proper balance of ciliated and secretory cells. A failure to generate and to maintain correct cell type composition and function results in impaired clearance and high risk to infections, such as in congenital diseases (e.g., ciliopathies) as well as in acquired diseases, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). While it remains incompletely resolved how precisely cell types are specified and maintained in development and disease, many studies have revealed important mechanisms regarding the signaling control in mucociliary cell types in various species. Those studies not only provided insights into the signaling contribution to organ development and regeneration but also highlighted the remarkable plasticity of cell identity encountered in mucociliary maintenance, including frequent trans-differentiation events during homeostasis and specifically in disease. This review will summarize major findings and provide perspectives regarding the future of mucociliary research and the treatment of chronic airway diseases associated with tissue remodeling.

Neuronal Development in the Larvae of the Invasive Biofouler Dreissena polymorpha (Mollusca: Bivalvia), with Special Attention to Sensory Elements and Swimming Behavior

Although understanding of the neuronal development of Trochozoa has progressed recently, little attention has been paid to freshwater bivalves, including species with a strong ecological impact, such as the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha). Therefore, an important question might concern how the developing nervous system is involved in the formation of the rapid and successful invasive behavior of this species. Our aim was to reveal the neuronal development of trochophore and veliger larvae of Dreissena, with special attention to the organization of sensory structures and their possible involvement in detecting environmental cues. After applying serotonin and FMRFamide immunocytochemistry, the first serotonin immunoreactive sensory elements appeared 16-18 hours after fertilization, whereas the first FMRFamide immunoreactive sensory cell was seen only at 32 hours of development (trochophore stage). Later, sensory elements were found in three parts of the larval body, including the apical organ, the posterior region, and the stomach. Although differences in the timing of appearance and the morphology of cells were observed, the two signaling systems showed basic similarity in their organization pattern until the end of the veliger stage. Pharmacological, physiological, and quantitative immunocytochemical investigations were also performed, suggesting the involvement of both the serotoninergic system and the FMRFamidergic system in sensomotor processes. Manipulation of the serotonin synthesis by para-chloroplenylalanine and 5-hydroxytryptophane, as well as application of increased salinity, influenced larval swimming activity, both accompanied by changes in immunofluorescence intensity. We concluded that these two early sensory systems may play an important role in the development of settlement competency of this biofouling invasive bivalve, Dreissena.

Monocrotophos, an organophosphorus insecticide, disrupts the expression of HpNetrin and its receptor neogenin during early development in the sea urchin (Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus)

Netrins, chemotropic guidance cues, can guide the extension of serotonergic axons by binding to netrin receptors during neural development. However, little is known about whether disruption of netrin signaling is involved in the mechanisms by which organophosphorus pesticides affect serotonergic nervous system (SNS) development. In this study, we evaluated the effects of the pesticide monocrotophos (MCP) on the expression patterns of HpNetrin and its receptor neogenin as well as on the intracellular calcium ion (Ca²⁺) levels in Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus (sea urchin) by exposing fertilized embryos to 0, 0.01, 0.10, and 1.00mg/L MCP. The results showed that MCP disrupted HpNetrin and neogenin expression at different developmental stages in H. pulcherrimus and that Ca²⁺ appeared to be involved in the MCP-induced developmental neurotoxicity. Specifically, the lower concentrations of MCP elevated HpNetrin and neogenin transcription, resulting in higher intracellular Ca²⁺ levels during the early developmental stages in the sea urchin; this may affect netrin-directed cell migration/axon extension and subsequently disrupt serotonergic axon branching and synapse formation. In contrast, 1.00mg/L MCP exhibited an inhibitory effect on HpNetrin and neogenin transcription. This finding implies that the regulatory roles of these factors may be diminished during early development, thereby causing developmental defects in the sea urchin. Collectively, our results provide a basis for exploring the involvement of netrin and neogenin in the organophosphate-induced disruption of the SNS during development.

Ciliomotor circuitry underlying whole-body coordination of ciliary activity in the Platynereis larva

Ciliated surfaces harbouring synchronously beating cilia can generate fluid flow or drive locomotion. In ciliary swimmers, ciliary beating, arrests, and changes in beat frequency are often coordinated across extended or discontinuous surfaces. To understand how such coordination is achieved, we studied the ciliated larvae of Platynereis dumerilii, a marine annelid. Platynereis larvae have segmental multiciliated cells that regularly display spontaneous coordinated ciliary arrests. We used whole-body connectomics, activity imaging, transgenesis, and neuron ablation to characterize the ciliomotor circuitry. We identified cholinergic, serotonergic, and catecholaminergic ciliomotor neurons. The synchronous rhythmic activation of cholinergic cells drives the coordinated arrests of all cilia. The serotonergic cells are active when cilia are beating. Serotonin inhibits the cholinergic rhythm, and increases ciliary beat frequency. Based on their connectivity and alternating activity, the catecholaminergic cells may generate the rhythm. The ciliomotor circuitry thus constitutes a stop-and-go pacemaker system for the whole-body coordination of ciliary locomotion.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.26000.001

The oceans contain a wide variety of microscopic organisms including bacteria, algae and animal larvae. Many of the microscopic animals that live in water use thousands of beating hair-like projections called cilia instead of muscles to swim around in the water. Understanding how these animals move will aid our understanding of how ocean processes, such as the daily migration of plankton to and from the surface of the water, are regulated.

The larvae of a ragworm called Platynereis use cilia to move around. Like other animals, Platynereis has a nervous system containing neurons that form networks to control the body. It is possible that the nervous system is involved in coordinating the activity of the cilia to allow the larvae to manoeuvre in the water, but it was not clear how this could work.

Here, Veraszto et al. investigated how Platynereis is able to swim. The experiments show that the larvae can coordinate their cilia so that they all stop beating at the same time and fold into to the body. Then the larvae can stimulate all of their cilia to resume beating. Veraszto et al. used a technique called electron microscopy to study how the nervous system connects to the cilia. This revealed that several giant neurons span the entire length of the larva and connect to cells that bear cilia. When these neurons were active, all the cilia in the body closed. When a different group of neurons in the larva was active, all of the cilia resumed beating. Together, these two groups of neurons were ultimately responsible for the swimming motions of the larvae.

Together, the findings of Veraszto et al. show that a few neurons in the nervous system of the larvae provide a sophisticated system for controlling how the larvae swim around. This suggests that the microscopic animals found in marine environments are a lot more sophisticated than previously appreciated. A next challenge is to find out how the neurons that control cilia connect to the rest of the animal’s nervous system and how different cues influence when the larva swims or stops swimming. This would help us understand how the environment influences the distribution of animal larvae in the oceans and how this may change in the future.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.26000.002

Comparative localization of serotonin-like immunoreactive cells in Thaliacea informs tunicate phylogeny

BACKGROUND

Thaliaceans is one of the understudied classes of the phylum Tunicata. In particular, their phylogenetic relationships remain an issue of debate. The overall pattern of serotonin (5-HT) distribution is an excellent biochemical trait to interpret internal relationships at order level. In the experiments reported here we compared serotonin-like immunoreactivity at different life cycle stages of two salpid, one doliolid, and one pyrosomatid species. This multi-species comparison provides new neuroanatomical data for better resolving the phylogeny of the class Thaliacea.

RESULTS

Adults of all four examined thaliacean species exhibited serotonin-like immunoreactivity in neuronal and non-neuronal cell types, whose anatomical position with respect to the nervous system is consistently identifiable due to α-tubulin immunoreactivity. The results indicate an extensive pattern that is consistent with the presence of serotonin in cell bodies of variable morphology and position, with some variation within and among orders. Serotonin-like immunoreactivity was not found in immature forms such as blastozooids (Salpida), tadpole larvae (Doliolida) and young zooids (Pyrosomatida).

CONCLUSIONS

Comparative anatomy of serotonin-like immunoreactivity in all three thaliacean clades has not been reported previously. These results are discussed with regard to studies of serotonin-like immunoreactivity in adult ascidians. Lack of serotonin-like immunoreactivity in the endostyle of Salpida and Doliolida compared to Pyrosomella verticillata might be the result of secondary loss of serotonin control over ciliary beating and mucus secretion. These data, when combined with other plesiomorphic characters, support the hypothesis that Pyrosomatida is basal to these clades within Phlebobranchiata and that Salpida and Doliolida constitute sister-groups.

Expression and functional activity of neurotransmitter system components in sea urchins' early development

Reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) investigation of the expression of the components supposedly taking part in serotonin regulation of the early development of Paracentrotus lividus has shown the presence of transcripts of five receptors, one of which has conservative amino acid residues characteristic of monoaminergic receptors. At the early stages of embryogenesis the expressions of serotonin transporter (SERT) and noradrenaline transporter (NET) were also recognized. The activities of the enzymes of serotonin synthesis and serotonin transporter were shown using immunohistochemistry and incubation with para-chlorophenylalanine (PСРА) and 5-hydroxytryptophan (HTP). Pharmacological experiments have shown a preferential cytostatic activity of ligands characterized as mammalian 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)1-antagonists. On the basis of the sum of the data from molecular biology and embryo physiological experiments, it is suggested that metabotropic serotonin receptors and membrane transporters take part in the regulatory processes of early sea urchin embryogenesis.

ATP4a is required for development and function of the Xenopus mucociliary epidermis - a potential model to study proton pump inhibitor-associated pneumonia

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), which target gastric H(+)/K(+)ATPase (ATP4), are among the most commonly prescribed drugs. PPIs are used to treat ulcers and as a preventative measure against gastroesophageal reflux disease in hospitalized patients. PPI treatment correlates with an increased risk for airway infections, i.e. community- and hospital-acquired pneumonia. The cause for this correlation, however, remains elusive. The Xenopus embryonic epidermis is increasingly being used as a model to study airway-like mucociliary epithelia. Here we use this model to address how ATP4 inhibition may affect epithelial function in human airways. We demonstrate that atp4a knockdown interfered with the generation of cilia-driven extracellular fluid flow. ATP4a and canonical Wnt signaling were required in the epidermis for expression of foxj1, a transcriptional regulator of motile ciliogenesis. The ATP4/Wnt module activated foxj1 downstream of ciliated cell fate specification. In multiciliated cells (MCCs) of the epidermis, ATP4a was also necessary for normal myb expression, apical actin formation, basal body docking and alignment of basal bodies. Furthermore, ATP4-dependent Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the epidermis was a prerequisite for foxa1-mediated specification of small secretory cells (SSCs). SSCs release serotonin and other substances into the medium, and thereby regulate ciliary beating in MCCs and protect the epithelium against infection. Pharmacological inhibition of ATP4 in the mature mucociliary epithelium also caused a loss of MCCs and led to impaired mucociliary clearance. These data strongly suggest that PPI-associated pneumonia in human patients might, at least in part, be linked to dysfunction of mucociliary epithelia of the airways.

A novel serotonin-secreting cell type regulates ciliary motility in the mucociliary epidermis of Xenopus tadpoles

The embryonic skin of Xenopus tadpoles serves as an experimental model system for mucociliary epithelia (MCE) such as the human airway epithelium. MCEs are characterized by the presence of mucus-secreting goblet and multiciliated cells (MCCs). A third cell type, ion-secreting cells (ISCs), is present in the larval skin as well. Synchronized beating of MCC cilia is required for directional transport of mucus. Here we describe a novel cell type in the Xenopus laevis larval epidermis, characterized by serotonin synthesis and secretion. It is termed small secretory cell (SSC). SSCs are detectable at early tadpole stages, unlike MCCs and ISCs, which are specified at early neurulation. Subcellularly, serotonin was found in large, apically localized vesicle-like structures, which were entirely shed into the surrounding medium. Pharmacological inhibition of serotonin synthesis decreased the velocity of cilia-driven fluid flow across the skin epithelium. This effect was mediated by serotonin type 3 receptor (Htr3), which was expressed in ciliated cells. Knockdown of Htr3 compromised flow velocity by reducing the ciliary motility of MCCs. SSCs thus represent a distinct and novel entity of the frog tadpole MCE, required for ciliary beating and mucus transport across the larval skin. The identification and characterization of SSCs consolidates the value of the Xenopus embryonic skin as a model system for human MCEs, which have been known for serotonin-dependent regulation of ciliary beat frequency.

Effects of monocrotophos pesticide on serotonin metabolism during early development in the sea urchin, Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus

Organophosphate pesticides can interfere with the serotonergic nervous system and potentially lead to malformations and behavioral abnormalities during early development in sea urchin. To investigate the mechanism by which monocrotophos (MCP) pesticide disrupts the serotonergic nervous system, we evaluated its effects on serotonin metabolism. Fertilized embryos of sea urchin were incubated with 40% MCP pesticide at nominal concentrations of 0.01, 0.10 and 1.00mg/L, and the effects on tryptophan hydroxylase of Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus (HpTPH), serotonin reuptake transporter (SERT), monoamine oxidase (MAO), and serotonin levels were investigated. The results indicated that MCP pesticide disturbed the baseline pattern of HpTPH and SERT mRNA expression and MAO activity during early development in H. pulcherrimus. When serotonin should be quickly metabolized at 36-hpf stage, HpTPH and SERT expression was decreased and MAO activity was induced by MCP pesticide, leading to the impairment of serotonergic synaptic activity. But when serotonin should be metabolized at low levels during the other six stages, MCP pesticide induced HpTPH and SERT expression, resulting in the improvement of serotonergic synaptic activity. We concluded that this metabolic disturbance is one of the major mechanisms by which MCP pesticides affect the serotonergic nervous system and potentially contribute to various developmental abnormalities.

A chemical screen identifies class a g-protein coupled receptors as regulators of cilia

Normal cilia length and motility are critical for proper cellular function. Prior studies of the regulation of ciliary structure and length have primarily focused on the intraflagellar transport machinery and motor proteins required for ciliary assembly and disassembly. However, several mutants with abnormal length flagella highlight the importance of signaling proteins as well. In this study, an unbiased chemical screen was performed to uncover signaling pathways that are critical for ciliogenesis and length regulation using flagella of the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii as a model. The annotated Sigma LOPAC1280 chemical library was screened for effects on flagellar length, motility, and severing as well as cell viability. Assay data were clustered to identify pathways regulating flagella. The most frequent target found to be involved in flagellar length regulation was the family of dopamine binding G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). In mammalian cells, cilium length could indeed be altered with expression of the dopamine D1 receptor. Our screen thus reveals signaling pathways that are potentially critical for ciliary formation, resorption, and length maintenance, which represent candidate targets for therapeutic intervention of disorders involving ciliary malformation and malfunction.

Identification and evolutionary implications of neurotransmitter-ciliary interactions underlying the behavioral response to hypoxia in Lymnaea stagnalis embryos

Acceleration of embryonic rotation is a common response to hypoxia among pond snails. It was first characterized in Helisoma trivolvis embryos, which have a pair of sensorimotor neurons that detect hypoxia and release serotonin onto postsynaptic ciliary cells. The objective of the present study was to determine how the hypoxia response is mediated in Lymnaea stagnalis, which differ from H. trivolvis by having both serotonergic and dopaminergic neurons, and morphologically distinct ciliated structures at comparative stages of embryonic development. Time-lapse video recordings of the rotational behavior in L. stagnalis revealed similar rotational features to those previously observed in H. trivolvis, including rotational surges and rotational responses to hypoxia. Serotonin and dopamine increased the rate of rotation with similar potency. In contrast, serotonin was more potent than dopamine in stimulating the ciliary beat frequency of isolated pedal cilia. Isolated apical plate cilia displayed an irregular pattern of ciliary beating that precluded the measurement of ciliary beat frequency. A qualitative assessment of ciliary beating revealed that both serotonin and dopamine were able to stimulate apical plate cilia. The ciliary responses to dopamine were reversible in both pedal and apical plate cilia, whereas the responses to serotonin were only reversible at concentrations below 100 μmol l(-1). Mianserin, a serotonin receptor antagonist, and SKF83566, a dopamine receptor antagonist, effectively blocked the rotational responses to serotonin and dopamine, respectively. The rotational response to hypoxia was only partially blocked by mianserin, but was fully blocked by SKF83566. These data suggest that, despite the ability of serotonin to stimulate ciliary beating in L. stagnalis embryos, the rotational response to hypoxia is primarily mediated by the transient apical catecholaminergic neurons that innervate the ciliated apical plate.

A 5-HT1A-like receptor is involved in the regulation of the embryonic rotation of Lymnaea stagnalis L

Cilia driven rotation of the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis embryos is regulated by serotonin (5-HT). In the present study, physiological and biochemical assays were used to identify the 5-HT receptor type involved in rotation. The 5-HTergic agonists applied stimulated the rotation by 180-400% and their rank order potency was as follows: LSD>5-HT>8-OH-DPAT>WB4101>>5-CT. The applied antagonists, spiperone, propranalol and mianserin inhibited the 5-HT or 8-OH-DPAT stimulated rotation of the embryos by 50-70%. (3)H-5-HT was bound specifically to the washed pellet of the embryo homogenates. The specific binding of (3)H-5-HT was saturable and showed a single, high affinity binding site with K(d) 7.36 nM and B(max) 221 fmol/mg pellet values. This is the first report demonstrating the high affinity binding of (3)H-5-HT to the native receptor in molluscs. All of the pharmacons that stimulated the rotation or inhibited the 5-HT or 8-OH-DPAT evoked stimulation displaced effectively the binding of (3)H-5-HT. 5-HT resulted in the inhibition of forskolin stimulated cAMP accumulation, showing that 5-HT is negatively coupled to adenylate cyclase. Our results suggest that in the 5-HTergic regulation of the embryonic rotation in L. stagnalis a 5-HT(1A)-like receptor of the vertebrate type is involved.

Contrary effects of octopamine receptor ligands on behavioral and neuronal changes in locomotion of lymnaea

The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis moves along the sides and bottom of an aquarium, but it can also glide upside down on its back below the water's surface. We have termed these two forms of locomotion "standard locomotion" and "upside-down gliding," respectively. Previous studies showed that standard locomotion is produced by both cilia activity on the foot and peristaltic contraction of the foot muscles, whereas upside-down gliding is mainly caused by cilia activity. The pedal A neurons are thought to receive excitatory octopaminergic input, which ultimately results in increased cilia beating. However, the relationship between locomotory speed and the responses of these neurons to octopamine is not known. We thus examined the effects of both an agonist and an antagonist of octopamine receptors on locomotory speed and the firing rate of the pedal A neurons. We also examined, at the electron and light-microscopic levels, whether structural changes occur in cilia following the application of either an agonist or an antagonist of octopamine receptors to the central nervous system (CNS). We found that the application of an octopamine antagonist to the CNS increased the speed of both forms of locomotion, whereas application of octopamine increased only the firing rate of the pedal A neurons. Microscopic examination of the cilia proved that there were no changes in their morphology after application of octopamine ligands. These data suggest that there is an unidentified octopaminergic neuronal network in the CNS whose activation reduces cilia movement and thus locomotory speed.

Role of aminergic (serotonin and dopamine) systems in the embryogenesis and different embryonic behaviors of the pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis

A detailed biochemical and pharmacological analysis of the dopaminergic (DAergic) and serotonergic (5-HTergic) systems was performed during the embryogenesis of Lymnaea stagnalis, to monitor their role in development and different behaviors. The dopamine (DA) level and the synthesizing decarboxylase enzyme activity showed a continuous increase, whereas the serotonin (5-HT) concentration remained low until late postmetamorphic development, when they all showed a rapid and significant increase. Application of monoamine precursors increased, whereas enzyme inhibitors and neurotoxins reduced monoamine levels; all treatments resulting in a prolongation of embryogenesis. Following, p-chlorphenylalanine (pCPA) and 3-hydroxybenzylhydrazine (Nsd-1015) treatments, no 5-HT immunoreactivity could be detected in the embryonic nervous system. These findings suggest that changes of monoamine levels in either (negative or positive) direction cause slowing of embryogenesis. Embryonic rotation and radula protrusion rate was enhanced following both serotonin and dopamine application, whereas frequency of gliding was increased by serotonin treatment. These results clearly indicate the involvement of 5-HT and DA in the regulation of a broad range of embryonic behaviors. Pharmacological characterization of a 5-HT receptor associated with the L. stagnalis embryonic behaviors studied revealed that a mammalian 5-HT(1)-like receptor type is involved in the 5-HTergic regulation of locomotion activity.

Upside-down gliding of Lymnaea

The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis can often be observed moving upside down on its back just below the surface of the water. We have termed this form of movement "upside-down gliding." To elucidate the mechanism of this locomotion, we performed a series of experiments involving behavioral analyses and microscopic observations. These experiments were designed (1) to measure the speed of this locomotion; (2) to determine whether the mucus secreted from the foot of Lymnaea repels water, thereby allowing the snail to exploit the surface tension of the water for upside-down gliding; and (3) to observe the beating of foot cilia in this behavior. The beating of these cilia is thought to be the primary driving force for upside-down gliding. Our results demonstrate that upside-down gliding is an efficient active process involving the secretion of mucus that floats up to the water surface to serve as a substrate upon which cilia beat to cause locomotion at the underside of the water surface.

Development of the 5-HT-like immunoreactive pedal plexus in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis appressa

In many gastropods, a serotonin-like immunoreactive axon plexus lies over ciliary cells on the pedal sole. The origin and function of axons in this plexus is uncertain. By using serotonin antibodies in the direct-developing embryo of the pond snail, the axons that initially form this plexus were traced from seven large neurons in each pedal ganglion. Soon after metamorphosis begins, the first immunoreactive pedal ganglion neuron sends multiple branched neurites to lie directly over pedal sole ciliary cells. By 70% of the 11 days required for hatching, axons from the seven neuron pairs form a plexus over ciliary cells in the whole sole. The axon from each of the seven neurons is guided to a specific area of the pedal plexus where ciliary cells are developing. Axons from two pairs of these neurons, which form the pedal plexus in the posterior part of the foot, are in the unpaired nerve that comes from the pedal ganglia ventral commissure. It is likely that these two developing neuron pairs are homologs of the two neuron pairs in Lymnaea stagnalis that have axons in this ventral commissure nerve. Identification of these neurons and the other five neuron pairs with axons in the pedal plexus will provide a basis for future studies of the relation between the plexus and pedal ciliary locomotion.

Embryonic motility and hatching success of Ambystoma maculatum are influenced by a symbiotic alga

To augment O2supply through the jelly mass and egg capsule, embryonic yellow-spotted salamanders ( Ambystoma maculatum (Shaw, 1802)) take advantage of a unicellular alga, Oophila ambystomatis . Convective currents from surface cilia, however, may also enhance O2transport, whereas muscular contractions could either enhance delivery or contribute to O2consumption. Embryonic motion is, therefore, potentially vital to salamander development. We examined embryonic motility across multiple developmental stages, survivorship, and hatching timing in response to different algal levels by rearing salamander egg masses under three different diel light cycles: 24 h dark, 12 h light, and 24 h light per day. Embryos raised in continuous light hatched synchronously and at slightly earlier developmental stages than embryos raised in the dark or in 12 h light per day. We removed eggs at multiple stages to examine embryonic rotation and muscular contraction rates under 180 min periods of both light and dark. Rotational movements occurred more frequently in alga-free than in algae-inhabited eggs, and more frequently in algae-inhabited eggs in the dark than in light. At later developmental stages, muscular contractions were more frequent in embryos from algae-inhabited egg masses in light than those in the dark; thus embryos with less O2reduced muscular activity, thereby reducing energy consumption when O2availability was compromised.

Identification, molecular structure and expression of two cloned serotonin receptors from the pond snail, Helisoma trivolvis

Helisoma trivolvis has served as a model system to study the functions of serotonin (5-HT) from cellular, developmental, physiological and behavioural perspectives. To further explore the serotonin system at the molecular level, and to provide experimental knockout tools for future studies, in this study we identified serotonin receptor genes from the H. trivolvis genome, and characterized the molecular structure and expression profile of the serotonin receptor gene products. Degenerate oligonucleotide primers, based on conserved regions of the Lymnaea stagnalis 5-HT(1Lym) receptor, were used to amplify G protein-coupled biogenic amine receptor sequences from H. trivolvis genomic cDNA, resulting in the cloning of two putative serotonin receptors. The deduced gene products both appear to be G protein-coupled serotonin receptors, with well-conserved structure in the functional domains and high variability in the vestibule entrance of the receptor protein. Phylogenetic analysis placed these receptors in the 5-HT(1) and 5-HT(7) families of serotonin receptors. They are thus named the 5-HT(1Hel) and 5-HT(7Hel) receptors, respectively. In situ hybridization and immunofluorescence studies revealed that these genes and gene products are expressed most heavily in the ciliated pedal and mantle epithelia of H. trivolvis embryos. In adults, widespread expression occurred in all ganglia and connectives of the central nervous system. Expression of both receptor proteins was localized exclusively to neurites when examined in situ. In contrast, when isolated neurons were grown in culture, 5-HT(1Hel) and 5-HT(7Hel) immunoreactivity were located primarily in the cell body. This is the first study to reveal a 5-HT(7) receptor in a molluscan species.

Integrative biology of an embryonic respiratory behaviour in pond snails:the `embryo stir-bar hypothesis'

Embryos of freshwater snails undergo direct development from single cell to juvenile inside egg masses that are deposited on vegetation and other substratum in pond, lake and stream habitats. Helisoma trivolvis, a member of the Planorbidae family of basommatophoran snails, has served as a model for studying the developmental and physiological roles for neurotransmitters during embryogenesis. Early studies revealed that H. trivolvis embryos from stage E15 to E30, the period between gastrulation and the trochophore–juvenile transition, display a cilia-driven behaviour consisting of slow basal rotation and transient periods of rapid rotation. The discovery of a bilateral pair of early serotonergic neurons,named ENC1, which project an apical process to the embryo surface and basal neurites to ciliated cells, prompted the hypothesis that each ENC1 is a dual-function sensory and motor neuron mediating a physiological embryonic response. This article reviews our past and present studies and addresses questions concerning this hypothesis, including the following. (1) What environmental signal regulates ENC1 activity and rotational behaviour? (2)Does ENC1 function as both a primary sensory and motor neuron underlying the rotational behaviour? (3) What are the sensory transduction mechanisms? (4)How does ENC1 regulate ciliary beating? (5) Do other basommatophoran species have similar neural–ciliary pathways and behavioural responses? (6) How is the behaviour manifest in the dynamic natural environment? In this review,we introduce the `embryo stir-bar hypothesis', which proposes that embryonic rotation is a hypoxia-sensitive respiratory behaviour responsible for mixing the egg capsule fluid, thereby enhancing delivery of environmental oxygen to the embryo.

Neural control of the velum in larvae of the gastropod, Ilyanassa obsoleta

Larval molluscs commonly use ciliated vela to swim and feed. In this study we used immunohistochemistry to demonstrate innervation of velar cilia and muscles by monoaminergic and peptidergic fibres in the caenogastropod, Ilyanassa obsoleta. Photoelectric recordings from pre-oral cilia on isolated pieces of velum revealed that serotonin increased, whereas catecholamines (dopamine and norepinephrine) decreased beat frequency at concentrations of 10(-6) to 10(-9) mol l(-1). Catecholamines also increased the frequency of momentary, isolated arrests of pre-oral cilia, but failed to suppress beating of the post-oral cilia at these concentrations. The neuropeptides, FMRFamide and Leu-enkephalin, did not affect the frequency of ciliary beating or of isolated ciliary arrests, but did induce numerous muscular contractions, which were accompanied by sustained ciliary arrests. In terms of whole animal behaviour, serotonin caused larvae to concentrate toward the top of a water column and to increase feeding, whereas catecholamines caused larvae to concentrate toward the bottom of a water column and decrease feeding. Monoamine analogues which facilitated or opposed the effects of synthetic transmitters on larval behaviour, further suggested that these transmitters are released endogenously to control velar function. Finally, applications of peptides to whole larvae caused increased frequency of locomotory arrests. Together these findings demonstrate several potential roles for the nervous system in controlling larval behaviour in gastropods.

Serotonin stimulates [Ca2+]i elevation in ciliary ectodermal cells of echinoplutei through a serotonin receptor cell network in the blastocoel

A full-length serotonin receptor mRNA from the 5Hthpr gene was sequenced from larvae of the sea urchin, Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus.The DNA sequence was most similar to 5HT-1A of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus found by The Sea Urchin Genome Project,and the protein sequence predicted the presence of seven transmembrane domains. Immunohistochemistry with anti-5HThpr antibodies indicated that the protein was expressed on blastocoelar cells that comprised the major blastocoelar network (serotonin receptor cell network). These network cells inserted their processes into the ectoderm in various regions, including the ciliary band region. Serotonin injected into the blastocoel stimulated a transient elevation of cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration([Ca2+]i) in the ectoderm, as detected by Oregon-Green dextran, injected earlier in development. The calcium transient propagated as a wave at about 175 μm s–1, but was not detectable in the serotonin receptor-positive cell network. In larvae treated with p-chlorophenylalanine, a potent and irreversible serotonin synthesis inhibitor, serotonin application did not stimulate[Ca2+]i, the serotonin receptor cell network did not develop properly, and the swimming behavior of the larvae was abnormal. However, formation of a different nervous system comprising synaptotagmin-possessed neurites was not affected by p-chlorophenylalanine treatment. These results imply that serotonin secreted from the apical ganglion into the blastocoel stimulates the elevation of [Ca2+]i in the larval ectodermal cells through the serotonin receptor cell network.

Dopamine modulation of Ca(2+) dependent Cl(-) current regulates ciliary beat frequency controlling locomotion in Tritonia diomedea

The physiological mechanisms controlling ciliary beating remain largely unknown. Evidence exists supporting both hormonal control of ciliary beating and control via direct innervation. In the present study we investigated nervous control of cilia based locomotion in the nudibranch mollusc, Tritonia diomedea. Ciliated pedal epithelial (CPE) cells acting as locomotory effectors may be electrically excitable. To explore this possibility we characterized the cells' electrical properties, and found that CPE cells have large voltage dependent whole cell currents with two components. First, there is a fast activating outward Cl(-) current that is both voltage and Ca(2+) influx dependent (I(Cl(Ca))). I(Cl(Ca)) is sensitive to DIDS and 9-AC, and resembles currents of Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channels (CaCC). Ca(2+) dependence also suggests the presence of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels; however, we were unable to detect these currents. The second current, a voltage dependent proton current (I(H)), activates very slowly and is sensitive to both Zn(2+) and changes in pH. In addition we identify a new cilio-excitatory substance in Tritonia, viz., dopamine. Dopamine, in the 10 mumol l(-1)-1 mmol l(-1) range, significantly increases ciliary beat frequency (CBF). We also found dopamine and Tritonia Pedal Peptide (TPep-NLS) selectively suppress I(Cl(Ca)) in CPE cells, demonstrating a link between CBF excitation and I(Cl(Ca)). It appears that dopamine and TPep-NLS inhibit I(Cl(Ca)) not through changing [Ca(2+)](in), but directly by an unknown mechanism. Coupling of I(Cl(Ca)) and CBF is further supported by our finding that DIDS and zero [Cl(-)](out) both increase CBF, mimicking dopamine and TPep-NLS excitation. These results suggest that dopamine and TPep-NLS act to inhibit I(Cl(Ca)), initiating and prolonging Ca(2+) influx, and activating CBF excitation.

Nervous control of ciliary beating by Cl-, Ca2+ and calmodulin inTritonia diomedea

In vertebrates, motile cilia line airways, oviducts and ventricles. Invertebrate cilia often control feeding, swimming and crawling, or gliding. Yet control and coordination of ciliary beating remains poorly understood. Evidence from the nudibranch mollusc, Tritonia diomedea, suggests that locomotory ciliated epithelial cells may be under direct electrical control. Here we report that depolarization of ciliated pedal epithelial (CPE)cells increases ciliary beating frequency (CBF), and elicits CBF increases similar to those caused by dopamine and the neuropeptide, TPep-NLS. Further,four CBF stimulants (zero external Cl-, depolarization, dopamine and TPep-NLS) depend on a common mode of action, viz. Ca2+influx, possibly through voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, and can be blocked by nifedipine. Ca2+ influx alone, however, does not provide all the internal Ca2+ necessary for CBF change. Ryanodine receptor(RyR) channel-gated internal stores are also necessary for CBF excitation. Caffeine can stimulate CBF and is sensitive to the presence of the RyR blocker dantrolene. Dantrolene also reduces CBF excitation induced by dopamine and TPep-NLS. Finally, W-7 and calmidazolium both block CBF excitation by caffeine and dopamine, and W-7 is effective at blocking TPep-NLS excitation. The effects of calmidazolium and W-7 suggest a role for Ca2+-calmodulin in regulating CBF, either directly or via Ca2+-calmodulin dependent kinases or phosphodiesterases. From these results we hypothesize dopamine and TPep-NLS induce depolarization-driven Ca2+ influx and Ca2+ release from internal stores that activates Ca2+-calmodulin, thereby increasing CBF.

Roles of Ca2+and protein kinase C in the excitatory response to serotonin in embryonic molluscan ciliary cells

We examined the roles of Ca2+and protein kinase C (PKC) in the cilio-excitatory response to serotonin in pedal ciliary cells from Helisoma trivolvis embryos. Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT; 100 µmol/L) induced an increase in ciliary beat frequency (CBF) was abolished by microinjected BAPTA (50 mmol/L), but was only partially inhibited by the phospholipase C inhibitor U-73122 (10 µmol/L). The diacylglycerol analogs 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (100 µmol/L) and 1,2-dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol (100 µmol/L) caused increases in [Ca2+]ithat were smaller than those induced by serotonin. In the absence of extracellular Ca2+, 1,2-dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol (100 µmol/L) failed to elicit an increase in both CBF and [Ca2+]i. In contrast, the serotonin-induced increase in CBF persisted in the absence of extracellular Ca2+, although the increase in [Ca2+]iwas abolished. PKC inhibitors bisindolylmaleimide (10 and 100 nmol/L) and calphostin C (10 nmol/L) partially inhibited the serotonin-induced increase in CBF, but didn’t affect the serotonin-induced change in [Ca2+]i. These findings suggest that an intracellular store-dependent increase in [Ca2+]imediates the cilio-excitatory response to serotonin. Furthermore, although PKC is able to cause an increase in [Ca2+]ithrough calcium influx, it contributes to the cilio-excitatory response to 5-HT through a different mechanism.

High-speed digital imaging method for ciliary beat frequency measurement

The aim of this study was to develop a high-speed digital imaging system and related software for ciliary beat frequency (CFB) analysis in order to establish an automated and reliable method that is observer independent and faster compared to the conventional computerized microscope photometry method. Using primary human nasal epithelial cell cultures, the CBF was recorded with a computerized microscope photometry system and a high-speed digital imaging system. To obtain a wide range of frequencies, glycocholate (0.5%) and chlorocresol (0.005%) were used as ciliostimulatory and cilio-inhibitory reference compounds, respectively. The mean values in hertz (+/- s.d.) obtained with the photometry and high-speed digital imaging systems were: controls 8.2 +/- 0.9 and 7.9 +/- 1.1; chlorocresol 5.0 +/- 0.9 and 5.1 +/- 1.1; glycocholate 9.8 +/- 1.0 and 9.7 +/- 0.8. A similar increase (by 20 and 24%) and decrease (by 38 and 35%) in CBF was determined by the two methods after glycocholate and chlorocresol treatment, respectively. The mean difference between the photometry and high-speed digital imaging methods was 0.2 +/- 0.6 Hz, and the Bland-Altman limits of agreement were from -1.0 to +1.4 Hz, suggesting that the results obtained by these two methods could be used interchangeably. These results show the reliability of the high-speed digital imaging system and the software developed for in-vitro CBF measurements. The advantages of the system include: (i) fast data acquisition and calculation, (ii) whole field automated CBF analysis and (iii) reduction in selection bias.

The Pre-nervous Serotonergic System of Developing Sea Urchin Embryos and Larvae: Pharmacologic and Immunocytochemical Evidence

Forty serotonin-related neurochemicals were tested on embryos and larvae of Lytechinus variegatus and other sea urchin species. Some of these substances (agonists of 5-HT1 receptors, antagonists of 5-HT2, 5-HT3 or 5-HT4 receptors, and inhibitors of the serotonin transporter, SERT) perturbed post-blastulation development, eliciting changes in embryonic/larval phenotypes typical for each class of receptor ligand. These developmental malformations were prevented completely or partially by serotonin (5-HT) or 5-HT analogs (5-HTQ, AA-5-HT), providing evidence for the putative localization of cellular targets. Immunoreactive 5-HT, 5-HT receptors and SERT were found in pre-nervous embryos and larvae of both L. variegatus and Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis. During gastrulation, these components of the serotonergic system were localized to the archenteron (primary gut), mesenchyme-like cells, and often the apical ectoderm. These results provide evidence that pre-nervous 5-HT may regulate early events of sea urchin embryogenesis, mediated by 5-HT receptors or the 5-HT transporter.