One-trial conditioned taste aversion in Lymnaea: good and poor performers in long-term memory acquisition

Different stressors uniquely affect the expression of endocannabinoid-metabolizing enzymes in the central ring ganglia of Lymnaea stagnalis

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) plays an important role in neuroprotection, neuroplasticity, energy balance, modulation of stress, and inflammatory responses, acting as a critical link between the brain and the body's peripheral regions, while also offering promising potential for novel therapeutic strategies. Unfortunately, in humans, pharmacological inhibitors of different ECS enzymes have led to mixed results in both preclinical and clinical studies. As the ECS has been highly conserved throughout the eukaryotic lineage, the use of invertebrate model organisms like the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis may provide a flexible tool to unravel unexplored functions of the ECS at the cellular, synaptic, and behavioral levels. In this study, starting from the available genome and transcriptome of L. stagnalis, we first identified putative transcripts of all ECS enzymes containing an open reading frame. Each predicted protein possessed a high degree of sequence conservation to known orthologues of other invertebrate and vertebrate organisms. Sequences were confirmed by qualitative PCR and sequencing. Then, we investigated the transcriptional effects induced by different stress conditions (i.e., bacterial LPS injection, predator scent, food deprivation, and acute heat shock) on the expression levels of the enzymes of the ECS in Lymnaea's central ring ganglia. Our results suggest that in Lymnaea as in rodents, the ECS is involved in mediating inflammatory and anxiety-like responses, promoting energy balance, and responding to acute stressors. To our knowledge, this study offers the most comprehensive analysis so far of the ECS in an invertebrate model organism.

Investigating the interactions between multiple memory stores in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis

The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis exhibits various forms of associative learning including (1) operant conditioning of aerial respiration where snails are trained not to open their pneumostome in a hypoxic pond water environment using a weak tactile stimulus to their pneumostome as they attempt to open it; and (2) a 24 h-lasting taste-specific learned avoidance known as the Garcia effect utilizing a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection just after snails eat a novel food substance (carrot). Typically, lab-inbred snails require two 0.5 h training sessions to form long-term memory (LTM) for operant conditioning of aerial respiration. However, some stressors (e.g., heat shock or predator scent) act as memory enhancers and thus a single 0.5 h training session is sufficient to enhance LTM formation lasting at least 24 h. Here, we found that snails forming a food-aversion LTM following Garcia-effect training exhibited enhanced LTM following operant condition of aerial respiration if trained in the presence of the food substance (carrot) they became averse to. Control experiments led us to conclude that carrot becomes a 'sickness' risk signal and acts as a stressor, sufficient to enhance LTM formation for another conditioning procedure.

CNS serotonin content mediating food deprivation-enhanced learning is regulated by hemolymph tryptophan concentration and autophagic flux in the pond snail

Nutritional status affects cognitive function in many types of organisms. In the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis, 1 day of food deprivation enhances taste aversion learning ability by decreasing the serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamin; 5-HT) content in the central nervous system (CNS). On the other hand, after 5 days of food deprivation, learning ability and the CNS 5-HT concentration return to basal levels. How food deprivation leads to alterations of 5-HT levels in the CNS, however, is unknown. Here, we measured the concentration of the 5-HT precursor tryptophan in the hemolymph and CNS, and demonstrated that the CNS tryptophan concentration was higher in 5-day food-deprived snails than in non-food-deprived or 1-day food-deprived snails, whereas the hemolymph tryptophan concentration was not affected by the duration of food deprivation. This finding suggests the existence of a mediator of the CNS tryptophan concentration independent of food deprivation. To identify the mediator, we investigated autophagic flux in the CNS under different food deprivation conditions. We found that autophagic flux was significantly upregulated by inhibition of the tropomyosin receptor kinase (Trk)-Akt-mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (MTORC1) pathway in the CNS of 5-day food-deprived snails. Moreover, when autophagy was inhibited, the CNS 5-HT content was significantly downregulated in 5-day food-deprived snails. Our results suggest that the hemolymph tryptophan concentration and autophagic flux in the CNS cooperatively regulate learning ability affected by different durations of food deprivation. This mechanism may underlie the selection of behaviors appropriate for animal survival depending on the degree of nutrition.

Comparison between relative and absolute quantitative real-time PCR applied to single-cell analyses: Transcriptional levels in a key neuron for long-term memory in the pond snail

Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) is a powerful method for measuring nucleic acid levels and quantifying mRNA levels, even in single cells. In the present study, we compared the results of single-cell qPCR obtained by different quantification methods (relative and absolute) and different reverse transcription methods. In the experiments, we focused on the cerebral giant cell (CGC), a key neuron required for the acquisition of conditioned taste aversion in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis, and examined changes in the mRNA levels of 3 memory-related genes, cAMP-response element binding proteins (LymCREB1 and LymCREB2) and CREB-binding protein (LymCBP), during memory formation. The results obtained by relative quantification showed similar patterns for the 3 genes. For absolute quantification, reverse transcription was performed using 2 different methods: a mixture of oligo d(T) primers and random primers (RT method 1); and gene-specific primers (RT method 2). These methods yielded different results and did not show consistent changes related to conditioning. The mRNA levels in the samples prepared by RT method 2 were up to 3.3 times higher than those in samples prepared by RT method 1. These results suggest that for qPCR of single neurons, the efficacy and validity do not differ between relative and absolute quantification methods, but the reverse transcription step critically influences the results of mRNA quantification.

The role of non-coding RNAs in the formation of long-term associative memory after single-trial learning in Lymnaea

Investigations of the molecular mechanisms of long-term associative memory have revealed key roles for a number of highly evolutionarily conserved molecular pathways in a variety of different vertebrate and invertebrate model systems. One such system is the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis, in which, like in other systems, the transcription factors CREB1 and CREB2 and the enzyme NOS play essential roles in the consolidation of long-term associative memory. More recently, epigenetic control mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, and control of gene expression by non-coding RNAs also have been found to play important roles in all model systems. In this minireview, we will focus on how, in Lymnaea, even a single episode of associative learning can activate CREB and NO dependent cascades due to the training-induced up- or downregulation of the expression levels of recently identified short and long non-coding RNAs.

Conditioned taste aversion in the cricket Gryllus bimaculatus

Conditioned taste aversion (CTA) is a form of classical conditioning in which animals associate the taste of a food with illness caused by toxin contained in the food. CTA in mammals is achieved with a long interval of up to several hours between food ingestion and illness induced by LiCl injection. Insects also exhibit CTA, but not much is known about its features. We investigated whether the cricket Gryllus bimaculatus exhibits CTA when ingestion of a sugar solution is followed by LiCl injection. Crickets that ingested sucrose solution 5–10 min before LiCl injection exhibited reduction of sucrose consumption tested 24 or 48 h after injection compared to that tested 24 h before injection. In contrast, crickets that ingested sucrose solution 5–10 min after LiCl injection or 1 h or 8 h before or after injection did not exhibit reduction of sucrose consumption, indicating that reduction of sucrose consumption by CTA training is pairing-specific. We conclude that CTA in crickets is similar to that in mammals in that one-trial pairing is sufficient to achieve memory retention for days, but it differs in that it is achieved with a relatively short interval (< 1 h) between food ingestion and toxin injection.

What can we teach Lymnaea and what can Lymnaea teach us?

This review describes the advantages of adopting a molluscan complementary model, the freshwater snail Lymnaea stagnalis, to study the neural basis of learning and memory in appetitive and avoidance classical conditioning; as well as operant conditioning of its aerial respiratory and escape behaviour. We firstly explored ‘what we can teach Lymnaea’ by discussing a variety of sensitive, solid, easily reproducible and simple behavioural tests that have been used to uncover the memory abilities of this model system. Answering this question will allow us to open new frontiers in neuroscience and behavioural research to enhance our understanding of how the nervous system mediates learning and memory. In fact, from a translational perspective, Lymnaea and its nervous system can help to understand the neural transformation pathways from behavioural output to sensory coding in more complex systems like the mammalian brain. Moving on to the second question: ‘what can Lymnaea teach us?’, it is now known that Lymnaea shares important associative learning characteristics with vertebrates, including stimulus generalization, generalization of extinction and discriminative learning, opening the possibility to use snails as animal models for neuroscience translational research.

Epicatechin increases the persistence of long-term memory formed by conditioned taste aversion in Lymnaea

We examined the effects of epicatechin (Epi), a flavonoid abundant in green tea and cocoa, on long-term memory (LTM) formed following conditioned taste aversion (CTA) training in Lymnaeastagnalis In CTA training, the snails learnt to avoid a food that initially they liked (i.e. sucrose). Twenty-four hours after CTA training, 67% of the trained snails showed a significant decrease in the feeding behaviour elicited by sucrose. Placing snails in the Epi solution in CTA training did not alter the percentage of snails exhibiting LTM, but it significantly increased LTM persistence. We also examined changes following Epi exposure in spontaneous activity of the cerebral giant cells (CGCs) that modulate feeding behaviour and are necessary for CTA-LTM. Our data suggest that Epi causes a decrease in CGC activity and increases LTM persistence, possibly via a GABAergic mechanism.

Another Example of Conditioned Taste Aversion: Case of Snails

Simple Summary

It is important to decide what to eat and what not to eat in the life. Children are likely to reject new foods. When eating a new food results in a negative experience, the child will avoid that specific food in the future. This phenomenon is called ‘conditioned taste aversion’ in mammals, and it is considered necessary for survival by preventing subsequent ingestion of sickening foods. Many researchers study the same kind of phenomenon in invertebrates, too. For example, the formation of conditioned taste aversion was found in the pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis, with the selective associability between a sweet sucrose solution and a bitter KCl solution. A sweet food attracts many kinds of animals, resulting in the feeding response, whereas a KCl solution is an aversive stimulus, inducing a withdrawal response in snails. After repeated temporally-contingent presentations of these two stimuli, the sucrose solution no longer elicits a feeding response, and this phenomenon persists for a long term. In the present review, we first outline the mechanisms of conditioned taste aversion in mammals, then introduce the conditioned taste aversion in snails, and compare them. Furthermore, the molecular events in snails are discussed, suggesting the general mechanism in conditioned taste aversion.

Abstract

Conditioned taste aversion (CTA) in mammals has several specific characteristics: (1) emergence of a negative symptom in subjects due to selective association with a taste-related stimulus, (2) robust long-term memory that is resistant to extinction induced by repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus (CS), (3) a very-long-delay presentation of the unconditioned stimulus (US), and (4) single-trial learning. The pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis, can also form a CTA. Although the negative symptoms, like nausea, in humans cannot be easily observed in invertebrate animal models of CTA, all the other characteristics of CTA seem to be present in snails. Selective associability was confirmed using a sweet sucrose solution and a bitter KCl solution. Once snails form a CTA, repeated presentation of the CS does not extinguish the CTA. A long interstimulus interval between the CS and US, like in trace conditioning, still results in the formation of a CTA in snails. Lastly, even single-trial learning has been demonstrated with a certain probability. In the present review, we compare, in detail, CTA in mammals and snails, and discuss the possible molecular events in CTA.

Induction of LTM following an Insulin Injection

The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis learns conditioned taste aversion (CTA) and consolidates it into long-term memory (LTM). One-day food-deprived snails (day 1 snails) show the best CTA learning and memory, whereas more severely food-deprived snails (5 d) do not express good memory. However, previous studies showed that CTA-LTM was indeed formed in 5-d food-deprived snails (day 5 snails), but its recall was prevented by the effects of food deprivation. CTA-LTM recall in day 5 snails was expressed following 7 d of feeding and then 1 d of food deprivation (day 13 snails). In the present study, we thus hypothesized that memory recall occurs because day 13 snails are in an optimal internal state. One day of food deprivation before the memory test in day 13 snails increased the mRNA level of molluscan insulin-related peptide (MIP) in the CNS. Thus, we further hypothesized that an injection of insulin into day 5 snails following seven additional days with access to food (day 12 snails) activates CTA neurons and mimics the food deprivation state before the memory test in day 13 snails. Day 12 snails injected with insulin could recall the memory. In addition, the simultaneous injection of an anti-insulin receptor antibody and insulin into day 12 snails did not allow memory recall. Insulin injection also decreased the hemolymph glucose concentration. Together, the results suggest that an optimal internal state (i.e., a spike in insulin release and specific glucose levels) are necessary for LTM recall following CTA training in snails.

Lymnaea stagnalis as model for translational neuroscience research: From pond to bench

The purpose of this review is to illustrate how a reductionistic, but sophisticated, approach based on the use of a simple model system such as the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis (L. stagnalis), might be useful to address fundamental questions in learning and memory. L. stagnalis, as a model, provides an interesting platform to investigate the dialog between the synapse and the nucleus and vice versa during memory and learning. More importantly, the "molecular actors" of the memory dialogue are well-conserved both across phylogenetic groups and learning paradigms, involving single- or multi-trials, aversion or reward, operant or classical conditioning. At the same time, this model could help to study how, where and when the memory dialog is impaired in stressful conditions and during aging and neurodegeneration in humans and thus offers new insights and targets in order to develop innovative therapies and technology for the treatment of a range of neurological and neurodegenerative disorders.

Real-Time Analysis of Animal Feeding Behavior With a Low-Calculation-Power CPU

Our goal was to develop an automated system to determine whether animals have learned and changed their behavior in real-time using a low calculation-power central processing unit (CPU). The bottleneck of real-time analysis is the speed of image recognition. For fast image recognition, 99.5% of the image was excluded from image recognition by distinguishing between the subject and the background. We achieved this by applying a binarization and connected-component labeling technique. This task is important for developing a fully automated learning apparatus. The use of such an automated system can improve the efficiency and accuracy of biological studies. The pond snail Lymnaea stagnails can be classically conditioned to avoid food that naturally elicits feeding behavior, and to consolidate this aversion into long-term memory. Determining memory status in the snail requires real-time analysis of the number of bites the snail makes in response to food presentation. The main algorithm for counting bites comprises two parts: extracting the mouth images from the recorded video and measuring the bite rate corresponding to the memory status. Reinforcement-supervised learning and image recognition were used to extract the mouth images. A change in the size of the mouth area was used as the cue for counting the number of bites. The accuracy of the final judgment of whether or not the snail had learned was the same as that determined by human observation. This method to improve the processing speed of image recognition has the potential for broad application beyond biological fields.

Monoamines, Insulin and the Roles They Play in Associative Learning in Pond Snails

Molluscan gastropods have long been used for studying the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory. One such gastropod, the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis, exhibits long-term memory (LTM) following both classical and operant conditioning. Using Lymnaea, we have successfully elucidated cellular mechanisms of learning and memory utilizing an aversive classical conditioning procedure, conditioned taste aversion (CTA). Here, we present the behavioral changes following CTA training and show that the memory score depends on the duration of food deprivation. Then, we describe the relationship between the memory scores and the monoamine contents of the central nervous system (CNS). A comparison of learning capability in two different strains of Lymnaea, as well as the filial 1 (F1) cross from the two strains, presents how the memory scores are correlated in these populations with monoamine contents. Overall, when the memory scores are better, the monoamine contents of the CNS are lower. We also found that as the insulin content of the CNS decreases so does the monoamine contents which are correlated with higher memory scores. The present review deepens the relationship between monoamine and insulin contents with the memory score.

Comparison of brain monoamine content in three populations of Lymnaea that correlates with taste-aversive learning ability

To find a causal mechanism of learning and memory is a heuristically important topic in neuroscience. In the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis, the following experimental facts have accrued regarding a classical conditioning procedure known as conditioned taste aversion (CTA): (1) one-day food-deprived Dutch snails have superior CTA memory formation; (2) the one-day food-deprived snails have a low monoamine content (e.g., serotonin, dopamine, octopamine) in their central nervous system (CNS); (3) fed or five-day food-deprived snails have poorer CTA memory and a higher monoamine content; (4) the Dutch snails form better CTA memory than the Canadian TC1 strain; and, (5) the F₁ cross snails between the Dutch and Canadian TC1 strains also form poor CTA memory. Here, in one-day food-deprived snails, we measured the monoamine content in the CNSs of the 3 populations. In most instances, the monoamine content of the Dutch strain was lower than in the other two populations. The F₁ cross snails had the highest monoamine content. A lower monoamine content is correlated with the better CTA memory formation.

Two Strains of Lymnaea stagnalis and the Progeny from Their Mating Display Differential Memory-Forming Ability on Associative Learning Tasks

The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis learns and forms long-term memory (LTM) following both operant conditioning of aerial respiratory behavior and classical conditioning of taste aversive behavior. In the present study, we examined whether there are interstrain differences in the ability to form LTM following these two types of conditioning. A strain of Lymnaea (TC1) collected in Alberta, Canada exhibits superior memory-forming ability following aerial respiratory operant conditioning compared to a laboratory-reared strain of Lymnaea from Netherlands known as the Dutch strain. We asked whether the offspring of the Canadian TC1 and Dutch snails (i.e., filial 1 (F₁) cross snails) would have the superior memory ability and found, rather, that their memory ability was average like the Dutch snails. That is, the Canadian TC1 snails have superior ability for LTM formation following aerial respiratory operant conditioning, but the Dutch and the generated F₁ cross have average ability for memory forming. We next examined the Canadian TC1, Dutch and F₁ cross snails for their ability to learn and form memory following conditioned taste aversion (CTA). All three populations showed similar associative CTA responses. However, both LTM formation and the ratio of good-to-poor performers in the memory retention test were much better in the Dutch snails than the Canadian TC1 and F₁ cross snails. The memory abilities of the Canadian TC1 and F₁ cross snails were average. Our present findings, therefore, suggest that snails of different strains have different memory abilities, and the F₁ cross snails do not inherit the memory ability from the smart strain. To our knowledge, there have been a limited number of studies examining differences in memory ability among invertebrate strains, with the exception of studies using mutant flies.

The effect of brumation on memory retention

Long-term torpor is an adaptive strategy that allows animals to survive harsh winter conditions. However, the impact that prolonged torpor has on cognitive function is poorly understood. Hibernation causes reduced synaptic activity and experiments with mammals reveal that this can have adverse effects on memories formed prior to hibernation. The impact of brumation, the winter dormancy that is observed in ectotherms, on memory remains unknown. The aim of this study was to examine whether an amphibian, the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra), was able to retain learned spatial information after a period of brumation. Twelve fire salamanders were trained to make a simple spatial discrimination using a T-maze. All subjects learned the initial task. Upon reaching criterion, half of the subjects were placed into brumation for 100 days while the other half served as controls and were maintained under normal conditions. A post-brumation memory retention test revealed that animals from both conditions retained the learned response. Control tests showed that they solved the task using learned information and not olfactory cues. This finding contrasts with much of the mammalian research and suggests that the processes involved in prolonged torpor may have a fundamentally different impact on memory in mammals and amphibians.

Function of insulin in snail brain in associative learning

Insulin is well known as a hormone regulating glucose homeostasis across phyla. Although there are insulin-independent mechanisms for glucose uptake in the mammalian brain, which had contributed to a perception of the brain as an insulin-insensitive organ for decades, the finding of insulin and its receptors in the brain revolutionized the concept of insulin signaling in the brain. However, insulin's role in brain functions, such as cognition, attention, and memory, remains unknown. Studies using invertebrates with their open blood-vascular system have the promise of promoting a better understanding of the role played by insulin in mediating/modulating cognitive functions. In this review, the relationship between insulin and its impact on long-term memory (LTM) is discussed particularly in snails. The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis has the ability to undergo conditioned taste aversion (CTA), that is, it associatively learns and forms LTM not to respond with a feeding response to a food that normally elicits a robust feeding response. We show that molluscan insulin-related peptides are up-regulated in snails exhibiting CTA-LTM and play a key role in the causal neural basis of CTA-LTM. We also survey the relevant literature of the roles played by insulin in learning and memory in other phyla.

Do greater mouse-eared bats experience a trade-off between energy conservation and learning?

Bats, some species of rodents and some birds are able to save energy during the summer period by decreasing their body temperature and falling into torpor. Some studies indicate that torpor prevents sleeping and causes effects similar to sleep deprivation. Impairment of processes stabilizing memory slows down learning accuracy and speed. We conducted two experiments to test whether greater mouse-eared bats, Myotis myotis, which commonly use torpor during the summer period, experience a trade-off between energy savings and learning abilities. We compared learning speed and accuracy in bats that were exposed to low (7°C) and higher ambient temperatures (22°C) between training and experimental sessions. Tests were conducted in experiments with food reward (food search) and without food reward (perch search). Time spent with the skin temperature above 30°C was significantly longer for bats exposed to 22°C than for those exposed to 7°C, and longer in experiments with food reward than without food reward. We observed only a very weak tendency for better accuracy and shorter search times in bats exposed to 22°C than in those exposed to 7°C. Our data indicate that memory consolidation of bats under natural conditions is not affected by daily torpor when bats are in good condition and may therefore defend against a rapid fall into torpor. We suggest that homeostatic processes connected with the circadian rhythm allow protection of the consolidation of memory for relatively simple tasks despite time spent in torpor.

Memory block: a consequence of conflict resolution

Food deprivation for 1 day in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis before aversive classical conditioning results in optimal conditioned taste aversion (CTA) and long-term memory (LTM) formation, whereas 5-day food deprivation before training does not. We hypothesize that snails do in fact learn and form LTM when trained after prolonged food deprivation, but that severe food deprivation blocks their ability to express memory. We trained 5-day food-deprived snails under various conditions, and found that memory was indeed formed but is overpowered by severe food deprivation. Moreover, CTA-LTM was context dependent and was observed only when the snails were in a context similar to that in which the training occurred.

Effects of serotonin on the heartbeat of pond snails in a hunger state

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine: 5-HT) is a multimodal transmitter that controls both feeding response and heartbeat in snails. However, the effects of 5-HT on the hunger state are still unknown. We therefore examined the relation among the hunger state, the heartbeat rate and the 5-HT action in food-starved snails. We found that the hunger state was significantly distinguished by the heartbeat rate in snails. The heartbeat rate was high in the food-satiated snails, whereas it was low in the food-starved snails. An increase in 5-HT concentration in the body boosted the heartbeat rate in the food-starved snails, but did not affect the rate in the food-satiated snails. These results suggest that 5-HT application may mimic the change from a starvation to a satiation state normally achieved by direct ingestion of food.

Electrophysiological characteristics of feeding-related neurons after taste avoidance Pavlovian conditioning in Lymnaea stagnalis

Taste avoidance conditioning (TAC) was carried out on the pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis. The conditional stimulus (CS) was sucrose which elicits feeding behavior; while the unconditional stimulus (US) was a tactile stimulus to the head which causes feeding to be suppressed. The neuronal circuit that drives feeding behavior in Lymnaea is well worked out. We therefore compared the physiological characteristics on 3 classes of neurons involved with feeding behavior especially in response to the CS in conditioned vs. control snails. The cerebral giant cell (CGC) modulates feeding behavior, N1 medial neuron (N1M) is one of the central pattern generator neurons that organizes feeding behavior, while B3 is a motor neuron active during the rasp phase of feeding. We found the resting membrane potential in CGC was hyperpolarized significantly in conditioned snails but impulse activity remained the same between conditioned vs. control snails. There was, however, a significant increase in spontaneous activity and a significant depolarization of N1M’s resting membrane potential in conditioned snails. These changes in N1M activity as a result of training are thought to be due to withdrawal interneuron RPeD11 altering the activity of the CGCs. Finally, in B3 there was: 1) a significant decrease in the amplitude and the frequency of the post-synaptic potentials; 2) a significant hyperpolarization of resting membrane potential in conditioned snails; and 3) a disappearance of bursting activity typically initiated by the CS. These neuronal modifications are consistent with the behavioral phenotype elicited by the CS following conditioning.

An increase in insulin is important for the acquisition conditioned taste aversion in Lymnaea

Conditioned taste aversion (CTA) in Lymnaea is brought about by pairing a sucrose solution (the conditioned stimulus, CS) with an electric shock (the unconditioned stimulus, US). Following repeated CS-US pairings, CTA occurs and it is consolidated into long-term memory (LTM). The best CTA is achieved, if snails are food-deprived for 1 day before training commences. With a longer period of food deprivation (5 days), learning and memory formation does not occur. It has been hypothesized that the levels of insulin in the central nervous system (CNS) are very important for CTA to occur. To test his hypothesis, we injected insulin directly into 5-day food-deprived snails. The injection of insulin, as expected, resulted in a decrease in hemolymph glucose concentration. Consistent with our hypothesis with insulin injection, learning and memory formation of CTA occurred. That is, the 'insulin spike' is more important than an increase in hemolymph glucose concentration for CTA-LTM. If we injected an insulin receptor antibody into the snails before the insulin injection, learning was formed but memory formation was not, which is consistent with our previous study. Therefore, a rise in the insulin concentration (i.e., insulin spike) in the CNS is considered to be a key determining factor in the process of CTA-LTM.

The Yerkes-Dodson law and appropriate stimuli for conditioned taste aversion in Lymnaea

The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis can learn conditioned taste aversion and then consolidate it into long-term memory (LTM). A high voltage electric shock was used as the unconditioned stimulus (US), whereas we previously used KCl. We varied both the strength of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and US to determine if the so-called Yerkes-Dodson law prevailed. This is an empirical relationship between the state of arousal and LTM formation, showing that there is an optimal level of arousal leading to memory formation. However, too little or too much arousal results in poorer LTM. We found here that the most appropriate stimuli to use in taste aversion training in Lymnaea were a 10 mmol l-1 sucrose solution as the CS and a 3-s electric shock as the US.

From likes to dislikes: conditioned taste aversion in the great pond snail (Lymnaea stagnalis)

The neural circuitry comprising the central pattern generator (CPG) that drives feeding behavior in the great pond snail (Lymnaea stagnalis (L., 1758)) has been worked out. Because the feeding behavior undergoes associative learning and long-term memory (LTM) formation, it provides an excellent opportunity to study the causal neuronal mechanisms of these two processes. In this review, we explore some of the possible causal neuronal mechanisms of associative learning of conditioned taste aversion (CTA) and its subsequent consolidation processes into LTM in L. stagnalis. In the CTA training procedure, a sucrose solution, which evokes a feeding response, is used as the conditioned stimulus (CS) and a potassium chloride solution, which causes a withdrawal response, is used as the unconditioned stimulus (US). The pairing of the CS–US alters both the feeding response of the snail and the function of a pair of higher order interneurons in the cerebral ganglia. Following the acquisition of CTA, the polysynaptic inhibitory synaptic input from the higher order interneurons onto the feeding CPG neurons is enhanced, resulting in suppression of the feeding response. These changes in synaptic efficacy are thought to constitute a “memory trace” for CTA in L. stagnalis.

Involvement of insulin-like peptide in long-term synaptic plasticity and long-term memory of the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis

The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis is capable of learning taste aversion and consolidating this learning into long-term memory (LTM) that is called conditioned taste aversion (CTA). Previous studies showed that some molluscan insulin-related peptides (MIPs) were upregulated in snails exhibiting CTA. We thus hypothesized that MIPs play an important role in neurons underlying the CTA-LTM consolidation process. To examine this hypothesis, we first observed the distribution of MIP II, a major peptide of MIPs, and MIP receptor and determined the amounts of their mRNAs in the CNS. MIP II was only observed in the light green cells in the cerebral ganglia, but the MIP receptor was distributed throughout the entire CNS, including the buccal ganglia. Next, when we applied exogenous mammalian insulin, secretions from MIP-containing cells or partially purified MIPs, to the isolated CNS, we observed a long-term change in synaptic efficacy (i.e., enhancement) of the synaptic connection between the cerebral giant cell (a key interneuron for CTA) and the B1 motor neuron (a buccal motor neuron). This synaptic enhancement was blocked by application of an insulin receptor antibody to the isolated CNS. Finally, injection of the insulin receptor antibody into the snail before CTA training, while not blocking the acquisition of taste aversion learning, blocked the memory consolidation process; thus, LTM was not observed. These data suggest that MIPs trigger changes in synaptic connectivity that may be correlated with the consolidation of taste aversion learning into CTA-LTM in the Lymnaea CNS.

Insulin and memory in Lymnaea

The pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis, is capable of learning conditioned taste aversion (CTA) and consolidating this CTA into long-term memory (LTM). The DNA microarray experiments showed that some of molluscan insulin-related peptides (MIPs) were up-regulated in snails exhibiting CTA-LTM. On the other hand, the electrophysiological experiments showed that application of secretions from the MIPs-containing cells evoked long-term potentiation (LTP) at the synapses between the cerebral giant cell (a key interneuron for CTA) and the B1 motoneuron (a buccal motoneuron). We thus hypothesized that MIPs and MIP receptors play an important role at the synapses, probably underlying the CTA-LTM consolidation process. To examine this hypothesis, we applied the antibody, which recognizes the binding site of mammalian insulin receptors and is thought to cross-react MIP receptors, to the Lymnaea CNS. Our present data showed that an application of the antibody for insulin receptors to the isolated CNS blocked LTP, and that an injection of the antibody into the Lymnaea abdominal cavity inhibited LTM consolidation, but not CTA formation.

Memory trace in feeding neural circuitry underlying conditioned taste aversion in Lymnaea

BACKGROUND

The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis can maintain a conditioned taste aversion (CTA) as a long-term memory. Previous studies have shown that the inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) evoked in the neuron 1 medial (N1M) cell by activation of the cerebral giant cell (CGC) in taste aversion-trained snails was larger and lasted longer than that in control snails. The N1M cell is one of the interneurons in the feeding central pattern generator (CPG), and the CGC is a key regulatory neuron for the feeding CPG.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPLE FINDINGS

Previous studies have suggested that the neural circuit between the CGC and the N1M cell consists of two synaptic connections: (1) the excitatory connection from the CGC to the neuron 3 tonic (N3t) cell and (2) the inhibitory connection from the N3t cell to the N1M cell. However, because the N3t cell is too small to access consistently by electrophysiological methods, in the present study the synaptic inputs from the CGC to the N3t cell and those from the N3t cell to the N1M cell were monitored as the monosynaptic excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) recorded in the large B1 and B3 motor neurons, respectively. The evoked monosynaptic EPSPs of the B1 motor neurons in the brains isolated from the taste aversion-trained snails were identical to those in the control snails, whereas the spontaneous monosynaptic EPSPs of the B3 motor neurons were significantly enlarged.

CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE

These results suggest that, after taste aversion training, the monosynaptic inputs from the N3t cell to the following neurons including the N1M cell are specifically facilitated. That is, one of the memory traces for taste aversion remains as an increase in neurotransmitter released from the N3t cell. We thus conclude that the N3t cell suppresses the N1M cell in the feeding CPG, in response to the conditioned stimulus in Lymnaea CTA.

What's hot: the enhancing effects of thermal stress on long-term memory formation in Lymnaea stagnalis

The pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis, naturally inhabits slow flowing, shallow and stagnant environments in the northern temperate zone. Consequently, it will experience wide temperature fluctuations dependent on prevailing weather conditions. We hypothesize that periods of warming act as a thermal stressor to alter memory formation. Snails were exposed to an acute 1h period of 30°C pond water and we determined how memory formation following operant conditioning of aerial respiration was affected. In snails used here (the Dutch strain), a single 0.5h training session (TS) results in intermediate-term (3h) but not long-term memory (LTM). Applying the thermal stressor during training caused memory enhancement (i.e. LTM lasting 24 h). However, the breathing rate also increased in warm water, which might explain the enhanced memory. Therefore, we applied the thermal stressor (1h at 30°C) up to 4h before or 1h after training. This did not alter baseline breathing rate during the period when snails would experience training. However, the thermal stressor weather experienced prior to or following the single TS, resulted in an enhanced memory that persisted up to 48h (i.e. LTM). We conclude that memory enhancement is due to the stress associated with the thermal stimulus.

Does conditioned taste aversion learning in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis produce conditioned fear?

In conditioned taste aversion (CTA) training performed on the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis, a stimulus (the conditional stimulus, CS; e.g., sucrose) that elicits a feeding response is paired with an aversive stimulus (the unconditional stimulus, US) that elicits the whole-body withdrawal response and inhibits feeding. After CTA training and memory formation, the CS no longer elicits feeding. We hypothesize that one reason for this result is that after CTA training the CS now elicits a fear response. Consistent with this hypothesis, we predict the CS will cause (1) the heart to skip a beat and (2) a significant change in the heart rate. Such changes are seen in mammalian preparations exposed to fearful stimuli. We found that in snails exhibiting long-term memory for one-trial CTA (i.e., good learners) the CS significantly increased the probability of a skipped heartbeat, but did not significantly change the heart rate. The probability of a skipped heartbeat was unaltered in control snails given backward conditioning (US followed by CS) or in snails that did not acquire associative learning (i.e., poor learners) after the one-trial CTA training. These results suggest that as a consequence of acquiring CTA, the CS evokes conditioned fear in the conditioned snails, as evidenced by a change in the nervous system control of cardiac activity.

The effect of disgust on oral immune function

Disgust motivates avoidance of pathogen sources, but whether its role in disease avoidance extends into activating the immune system is unexplored. This was tested here by comparing oral immune markers before and after a disgust induction, relative to neutral and negative induction control groups. The disgust group, but not controls, revealed an oral inflammatory response, with increased salivary tumor necrotizing factor alpha and albumin, as well as a down-regulation of immunoglobulin A (SIgA) secretion. It has been hypothesized that disgust evolved in animals to clear toxins from the oral cavity by gaping and increased salivary flow. Our data suggest down-regulated SIgA secretion may be a vestige of this response so as to conserve protein, while the inflammatory reaction may reflect an adaptive response to disease threat, selectively triggered by disgust. The broader implications of these data for a discrete neuro-gut-immune axis are examined.

Hibernation does not affect memory retention in bats

Long-term memory can be critically important for animals in a variety of contexts, and yet the extreme reduction in body temperature in hibernating animals alters neurochemistry and may therefore impair brain function. Behavioural studies on memory impairment associated with hibernation have been almost exclusively conducted on ground squirrels (Rodentia) and provide conflicting results, including clear evidence for memory loss. Here, we for the first time tested memory retention after hibernation for a vertebrate outside rodents-bats (Chiroptera). In the light of the high mobility, ecology and long life of bats, we hypothesized that maintenance of consolidated memory through hibernation is under strong natural selection. We trained bats to find food in one out of three maze arms. After training, the pre-hibernation performance of all individuals was at 100 per cent correct decisions. After this pre-test, one group of bats was kept, with two interruptions, at 7°C for two months, while the other group was kept under conditions that prevented them from going into hibernation. The hibernated bats performed at the same high level as before hibernation and as the non-hibernated controls. Our data suggest that bats benefit from an as yet unknown neuroprotective mechanism to prevent memory loss in the cold brain.

Increase in excitability of RPeD11 results in memory enhancement of juvenile and adult Lymnaea stagnalis by predator-induced stress

Memory consolidation following learning is a dynamic process. Thus, long-term memory (LTM) formation can be modulated by many factors, including stress. We examined how predator-induced stress enhances LTM formation in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis at both the behavioral and electrophysiological levels. Training snails in crayfish effluent (CE; i.e., water from an aquarium containing crayfish) significantly enhanced LTM. That is, while memory persists for only 3h in adult control experiments following a single 0.5-h training session in pond water in which the pneumostome receives a contingent tactile stimulus to the pneumostome; when the snails are trained in CE, the memory persists for at least 24h. In juveniles, the data are more dramatic. Juveniles are unable to form LTM in pond water, but form LTM when trained in CE. Here we examined whether juvenile snails form LTM following a one-trial training procedure (1TT). Following the 1TT procedure (a single-trial aversive operant conditioning training procedure), juveniles do not form LTM, unless trained in CE. Concomitantly, we observe changes in the excitability of RPeD11, a key neuron mediating the whole snail withdrawal response, which may be a neural correlate of enhanced memory formation.

Learning-Dependent Gene Expression of CREB1 Isoforms in the Molluscan Brain

Cyclic AMP-responsive element binding protein1 (CREB1) has multiple functions in gene regulation. Various studies have reported that CREB1-dependent gene induction is necessary for memory formation and long-lasting behavioral changes in both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the present study, we characterized Lymnaea CREB1 (LymCREB1) mRNA isoforms of spliced variants in the central nervous system (CNS) of the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis. Among these spliced variants, the three isoforms that code a whole LymCREB1 protein are considered to be the activators for gene regulation. The other four isoforms, which code truncated LymCREB1 proteins with no kinase inducible domain, are the repressors. For a better understanding of the possible roles of different LymCREB1 isoforms, the expression level of these isoform mRNAs was investigated by a real-time quantitative RT-PCR method. Further, we examined the changes in gene expression for all the isoforms in the CNS after conditioned taste aversion (CTA) learning or backward conditioning as a control. The results showed that CTA learning increased LymCREB1 gene expression, but it did not change the activator/repressor ratio. Our findings showed that the repressor isoforms, as well as the activator ones, are expressed in large amounts in the CNS, and the gene expression of CREB1 isoforms appeared to be specific for the given stimulus. This was the first quantitative analysis of the expression patterns of CREB1 isoforms at the mRNA level and their association with learning behavior.

Differences in LTM-forming capability between geographically different strains of Alberta Lymnaea stagnalis are maintained whether they are trained in the lab or in the wild

We found strain differences in the ability of wild Alberta Lymnaea stagnalis to form long-term memory (LTM) following operant conditioning when L. stagnalis were collected from the wild and trained in the laboratory. Lymnaea stagnalis obtained from the Belly River watershed had an enhanced ability to form LTM compared with those from an isolated pond (referred to as Jackson snails). We therefore asked whether the differences in cognitive ability were an epiphenomenon as a result of training in the laboratory. To answer this question we trained each specific strain (Belly and Jackson) in both the laboratory and the field (i.e. in their home pond and in the pond where the other strain resided - referred to as the visitor pond). We found that within each strain there was no difference in the LTM phenotype whether they were trained in the lab or in either their home or visitor pond. That is, the strain differences in the ability to form LTM were still present. Interestingly, we found no strain differences in the ability to learn or the ability to form intermediate-term memory (ITM).

Contrary effects of octopamine receptor ligands on behavioral and neuronal changes in locomotion of lymnaea

The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis moves along the sides and bottom of an aquarium, but it can also glide upside down on its back below the water's surface. We have termed these two forms of locomotion "standard locomotion" and "upside-down gliding," respectively. Previous studies showed that standard locomotion is produced by both cilia activity on the foot and peristaltic contraction of the foot muscles, whereas upside-down gliding is mainly caused by cilia activity. The pedal A neurons are thought to receive excitatory octopaminergic input, which ultimately results in increased cilia beating. However, the relationship between locomotory speed and the responses of these neurons to octopamine is not known. We thus examined the effects of both an agonist and an antagonist of octopamine receptors on locomotory speed and the firing rate of the pedal A neurons. We also examined, at the electron and light-microscopic levels, whether structural changes occur in cilia following the application of either an agonist or an antagonist of octopamine receptors to the central nervous system (CNS). We found that the application of an octopamine antagonist to the CNS increased the speed of both forms of locomotion, whereas application of octopamine increased only the firing rate of the pedal A neurons. Microscopic examination of the cilia proved that there were no changes in their morphology after application of octopamine ligands. These data suggest that there is an unidentified octopaminergic neuronal network in the CNS whose activation reduces cilia movement and thus locomotory speed.

Upside-down gliding of Lymnaea

The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis can often be observed moving upside down on its back just below the surface of the water. We have termed this form of movement "upside-down gliding." To elucidate the mechanism of this locomotion, we performed a series of experiments involving behavioral analyses and microscopic observations. These experiments were designed (1) to measure the speed of this locomotion; (2) to determine whether the mucus secreted from the foot of Lymnaea repels water, thereby allowing the snail to exploit the surface tension of the water for upside-down gliding; and (3) to observe the beating of foot cilia in this behavior. The beating of these cilia is thought to be the primary driving force for upside-down gliding. Our results demonstrate that upside-down gliding is an efficient active process involving the secretion of mucus that floats up to the water surface to serve as a substrate upon which cilia beat to cause locomotion at the underside of the water surface.

Crowding, an environmental stressor, blocks long-term memory formation inLymnaea

Crowding is an environmental stressor. We found that this stressor altered(i.e. prevented) the ability of Lymnaea to form long-term memory(LTM) following operant conditioning of aerial respiratory behaviour. The ability to form LTM was compared between snails that had been crowded (20 snails per 100 ml of pond water) and those maintained in uncrowded conditions(two snails per 100 ml of pond water). Crowding either immediately before or after two different operant conditioning procedures – the traditional training procedure and the memory augmentation procedure – blocked LTM formation. However, if crowding is delayed by more than 1h following training or if crowding stops 1h before training, LTM results. If memory is already formed, crowding does not block memory recall. Pond water from a crowded aquarium or crowding with clean shells from dead snails, or a combination of both, is insufficient to block LTM formation. Finally, crowding does not block intermediate-term memory (ITM) formation. Since ITM is dependent on new protein synthesis whereas LTM is dependent on both new protein synthesis and altered gene activity, we hypothesize that crowding alters the genomic activity in neurons necessary for LTM formation.

Rapid consolidation to a radish and protein synthesis-dependent long-term memory after single-session appetitive olfactory conditioning in Drosophila

In Drosophila, formation of aversive olfactory long-term memory (LTM) requires multiple training sessions pairing odor and electric shock punishment with rest intervals. In contrast, here we show that a single 2 min training session pairing odor with a more ethologically relevant sugar reinforcement forms long-term appetitive memory that lasts for days. Appetitive LTM has some mechanistic similarity to aversive LTM in that it can be disrupted by cycloheximide, the dCreb2-b transcriptional repressor, and the crammer and tequila LTM-specific mutations. However, appetitive LTM is completely disrupted by the radish mutation that apparently represents a distinct mechanistic phase of consolidated aversive memory. Furthermore, appetitive LTM requires activity in the dorsal paired medial neuron and mushroom body alpha'beta' neuron circuit during the first hour after training and mushroom body alphabeta neuron output during retrieval, suggesting that appetitive middle-term memory and LTM are mechanistically linked. Last, experiments feeding and/or starving flies after training reveals a critical motivational drive that enables appetitive LTM retrieval.

Predator detection in Lymnaea stagnalis

Laboratory-reared Lymnaea are capable of detecting and responding to the scent of a crayfish predator. The present investigation is a first attempt to characterize multiple stress-related behavioural responses resulting from predator detection and to depict the neurophysiological correlates of one of these illustrated behaviours. Snails respond to crayfish effluent (CE) by increasing the following behaviours: aerial respiration, exploratory/searching phase and sensitivity to the shadow-elicited full-body withdrawal response. In contrast, when snails detect CE they decrease both their righting response time when dislodged from the substratum and their basal cutaneous oxygen consumption. Interestingly, basal heart rate does not change in response to CE exposure. Finally, we directly measured the activity of the neuron that initiates aerial respiratory behaviour, RPeD1, in semi-intact preparations. Naïve snails exposed to CE prior to recording demonstrated both a significantly reduced spontaneous firing rate and fewer bouts of bursting activity compared with non-exposed snails. These data show that laboratory-reared Lymnaea that have never experienced a natural predator are still capable of detecting and responding to the presence of a historically sympatric predator. These data open a new avenue of research, which may allow a direct investigation from the behavioural to the neuronal level as to how an ecologically relevant stressful stimulus alters behaviour.

One-trial conditioning of aerial respiratory behaviour in Lymnaea stagnalis

Repeated spaced training sessions of contingent tactile stimulation to the pneumostome as it opens are required to cause long-term memory (LTM) formation of aerial respiratory behaviour making if difficult to determine exactly when memory forms. We have devised a single-trial aversive operant conditioning training procedure in Lymnaea to be better able to elucidate the causal mechanisms of LTM formation. Observations of baseline breathing behaviour in hypoxia were first made. Twenty-four hours later the snails were trained using the single trial procedure, by placing them in a small Petri dish containing 4 ml of 25 mM KCl for 30-35s as soon as the first pneumostome opening in hypoxia was attempted. LTM was present if (1) breathing behaviour following training was significantly less than before; and (2) breathing behaviour post-training was significantly less in experimental groups than in yoked control groups. LTM persisted for 24 h but not 48 h. Yoked controls that received an aversive stimulus not contingent with pneumostome opening had no evidence of memory. Cooling directly after, but not at any other time, blocks LTM formation. LTM formation was also prevented by removal of the cell body of the neuron RPeD1 before training.