1
|
Yang Z, Jiang B, Benton MJ, Xu X, McNamara ME, Hone DWE. Allometric wing growth links parental care to pterosaur giantism. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20231102. [PMID: 37464754 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.1102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Pterosaurs evolved a broad range of body sizes, from small-bodied early forms with wingspans of mostly 1-2 m to the last-surviving giants with sizes of small airplanes. Since all pterosaurs began life as small hatchlings, giant forms must have attained large adult sizes through new growth strategies, which remain largely unknown. Here we assess wing ontogeny and performance in the giant Pteranodon and the smaller-bodied anurognathids Rhamphorhynchus, Pterodactylus and Sinopterus. We show that most smaller-bodied pterosaurs shared negative allometry or isometry in the proximal elements of the fore- and hindlimbs, which were critical elements for powering both flight and terrestrial locomotion, whereas these show positive allometry in Pteranodon. Such divergent growth allometry typically signals different strategies in the precocial-altricial spectrum, suggesting more altricial development in Pteranodon. Using a biophysical model of powered and gliding flight, we test and reject the hypothesis that an aerodynamically superior wing planform could have enabled Pteranodon to attain its larger body size. We therefore propose that a shift from a plesiomorphic precocial state towards a derived state of enhanced parental care may have relaxed the constraints of small body sizes and allowed the evolution of derived flight anatomies critical for the flying giants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zixiao Yang
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork T23 TK30, Ireland
- Environmental Research Institute, Ellen Hutchins Building, Lee Road, Cork T23 XE10, Ireland
| | - Baoyu Jiang
- Center for Research and Education on Biological Evolution and Environments, School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, People's Republic of China
| | - Michael J Benton
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Xing Xu
- Center for Vertebrate Evolutionary Biology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650031, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100044, People's Republic of China
| | - Maria E McNamara
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork T23 TK30, Ireland
- Environmental Research Institute, Ellen Hutchins Building, Lee Road, Cork T23 XE10, Ireland
| | - David W E Hone
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Picasso MBJ, Mosto C, Tudisca AM. The feeding apparatus of Rhea americana (Aves, Palaeognathae): Jaw myology and ontogenetic allometry. J Morphol 2023; 284:e21596. [PMID: 37313766 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2023] [Revised: 04/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In birds, the jaw musculature is a crucial adaptive feature involved in feeding. The morphological traits and postnatal growth patterns of jaw muscles constitute a useful proxy to interpret feeding function and ecology. This study aims to describe the jaw muscles of Rhea americana and explore their postnatal growth pattern. A total of 20 specimens of R. americana representing four ontogenetic stages were studied. Jaw muscles were described, weighed and their proportions with respect to body mass were calculated. Linear regression analysis was used to characterize ontogenetic scaling patterns. The morphological patterns of jaw muscles were characterized by their simplicity: bellies with few or no subdivisions and similar to those described for other flightless paleognathous birds. In all stages, the muscles pterygoideus lateralis, depressor mandibulae, and pseudotemporalis had the greatest mass values. The proportion of total jaw muscle mass decreased with age from 0.22% in 1-month-old chicks to 0.05% in adults. Linear regression analysis showed that all muscles scaled with negative allometry with respect to body mass. The progressive decrease of jaw muscle mass relative to body mass in adults could be related to the generation of less force, which is in accordance with the herbivorous diet of adults. In contrast, the diet of rhea chicks includes a large proportion of insects thus, this greater muscle proportion could be associated with the ability to generate more force, thus providing better abilities to grasp and hold more mobile prey.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mariana B J Picasso
- División Zoología Vertebrados, Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- CONICET- División Zoología Vertebrados, Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Clelia Mosto
- División Zoología Vertebrados, Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- CONICET- División Zoología Vertebrados, Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Alejandro M Tudisca
- División Zoología Vertebrados, Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Prondvai E, Butler RJ. Radial porosity profiles are a powerful tool for tracing locomotor maturation in developing limb bones. J Morphol 2023; 284:e21567. [PMID: 36748832 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Radial porosity profiles (RPP) are a new quantitative osteohistological parameter designed to capture the dynamic changes in the primary porosity of limb bones through ontogeny, providing insights into skeletal growth and functional development of extant and extinct vertebrates. Previous work hypothesized that RPP channelization-the intraskeletal alignment of RPPs across different bones resulting from similar cortical compaction patterns-indicates increasing locomotor performance of the developing limbs. By investigating RPPs in ontogenetic series of pheasants, pigeons and ducks representing distinct locomotor developmental strategies, we test this hypothesis here and show that RPPs are indeed powerful osteohistological correlates of locomotor ontogeny. Qualitative and quantitative analyses reveal strong association between RPP channelization and fledging, the most drastic locomotor transition in the life history of volant birds. The channelization signal is less clear in precocial leg function; however, when additional intraskeletal and intercohort RPP characteristics are considered, patterns related to leg precocity can also be identified. Thus, we demonstrate that RPPs can be used in future by palaeobiologists to generate breakthroughs in the study of the ontogeny and evolution of flight in fossil birds and pterosaurs. With further baseline data collection from modern terrestrial vertebrates, RPPs could also test hypotheses regarding ontogenetic postural shifts in dinosaurs and other terrestrial archosaurs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edina Prondvai
- School of Geography, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Richard J Butler
- School of Geography, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Williams KA, Gostling NJ, Oreffo ROC, Schneider P. Ontogenetic changes in cortical bone vascular microstructure in the domestic duck (Anas platyrhynchos) and ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). J Anat 2022; 241:1371-1386. [PMID: 36000871 PMCID: PMC9644950 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Age‐related changes in bone microstructure can inform our understanding the biology of both extant and fossil birds, but to date, histological work in birds, and particularly work using high‐resolution 3D imaging, has largely been restricted to limited growth stages. We used minimally destructive synchrotron radiation‐based X‐ray computed tomography to visualise and measure key morphological and histological traits in 3D across development in the domestic duck and ring‐necked pheasant. We use these measurements to build on the database of key reference material for interpreting bone histology. We found that growth patterns differed between the two species, with the ducks showing rapid growth in their lower limbs and early lower limb maturation, while pheasants grew more slowly, reflecting their later age at maturity. In the pheasant, both walking and flight occur early and their upper and lower limbs grew at similar rates. In the duck, flight and wing development are delayed until the bird is almost at full body mass. Through juvenile development, the second moment of area for the duck wing was low but increased rapidly towards the age of flight, at which point it became significantly greater than that of the lower limb, or the pheasant. On a microstructural level, both cortical porosity and canal diameter were related to cortical bone deposition rate. In terms of orientation, vascular canals in the bone cortex were more laminar in the humerus and femur compared with the tibiotarsus, and laminarity increased through juvenile development in the humerus, but not the tibiotarsus, possibly reflecting torsional vs compressive loading. These age‐related changes in cortical bone vascular microstructure of the domestic duck and pheasant will help understanding the biology of both extant and fossil birds, including age estimation, growth rate and growth patterns, and limb function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A Williams
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science and Health, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK.,Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.,Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Neil J Gostling
- Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.,School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Richard O C Oreffo
- Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.,Bone and Joint Research Group, Centre for Human Development, Stem Cells and Regeneration, Institute of Developmental Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Philipp Schneider
- Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.,Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.,High-Performance Vision Systems, Center for Vision, Automation & Control, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology, Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Mallon JC, Evans DC, Zhang Y, Xing H. Rare juvenile material constrains estimation of skeletal allometry in Gryposaurus notabilis (Dinosauria: Hadrosauridae). Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2022. [PMID: 35792557 DOI: 10.1002/ar.25021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In studying the skeletal allometry of any vertebrate, it is important to sample the ontogenetic extremes to ensure the accuracy of parameter estimation; this is particularly true for fossil taxa, where sampling of ontogenetic series is incomplete and sporadic. Previous studies have examined allometry in the skull of the duck-billed dinosaur Gryposaurus notabilis, but these did not include individuals smaller than ~65% the maximum known size (based on linear dimensions). Here, we report on the two smallest known examples of this species (a mostly complete skeleton and a partial skull), which are ~37% the known maximal size of G. notabilis. Osteohistology indicates that these represent individuals ~2 years of age. Allometric analysis demonstrates that most aspects of the skull of G. notabilis grew isometrically, although the height of the nasal arch grew with positive allometry. Early in the ontogeny of G. notabilis, the dentary teeth possessed secondary ridges, which were lost later in life. This finding has important bearing on hadrosaurid tooth taxonomy. The limb proportions of G. notabilis largely grew isometrically (or with weak negative allometry, at most), like some other hadrosaurids, suggesting that the species did not undergo a gait shift with increasing age (unless it occurred very early in ontogeny). We argue that the lack of significant locomotory performance compensation exhibited by young hadrosaurids helps to explain why they apparently formed small, mutualistic aggregations, presumably for protection from large predators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jordan C Mallon
- Beaty Centre for Species Discovery and Palaeobiology Section, Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.,Ottawa-Carleton Geoscience Centre and Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - David C Evans
- Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Yuguang Zhang
- Beijing Museum of Natural History, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Hai Xing
- Beaty Centre for Species Discovery and Palaeobiology Section, Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.,Beijing Museum of Natural History, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, CAS, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Prondvai E, Kocsis AT, Abourachid A, Adriaens D, Godefroit P, Hu DY, Butler RJ. Radial porosity profiles: a new bone histological method for comparative developmental analysis of diametric limb bone growth. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 9:211893. [PMID: 35582660 PMCID: PMC9091851 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.211893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In fossil tetrapods, limb bone histology is considered the most reliable tool not only for inferring skeletal maturity-a crucial assessment in palaeobiological and evolutionary studies-but also for evaluating the growth dynamics within the ontogenetic window represented by the primary bone cortex. Due to its complex relationship with bone growth and functional maturation, primary cortical vascularity is an indispensable osteohistological character for reconstructing growth dynamics, especially in the context of various developmental strategies along the precocial-altricial spectrum. Using this concept as our working hypothesis, we developed a new quantitative osteohistological parameter, radial porosity profile (RPP), that captures relative cortical porosity changes in limb bones as trajectories. We built a proof-of-concept RPP dataset on extant birds, then added fossil paravian dinosaurs and performed a set of trajectory-grouping analyses to identify potential RPP categories and evaluate them in the context of our ontogeny-developmental strategy working hypothesis. We found that RPPs, indeed, reflect important developmental features within and across elements, specimens and taxa, supporting their analytical power. Our RPPs also revealed unexpected potential osteohistological correlates of growth and functional development of limb bones. The diverse potential applications of RPPs open up new research directions in the evolution of locomotor ontogeny.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edina Prondvai
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
- MTA-MTM-ELTE Research Group for Paleontology, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Adam T. Kocsis
- Department of Palaeobiology, Friedrich-Alexander-University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Anick Abourachid
- Département Adaptations du Vivant, UMR 7179 Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle – CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Dominique Adriaens
- Department of Biology, Evolutionary Morphology of Vertebrates, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Pascal Godefroit
- Directorate Earth and History of Life, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Dong-Yu Hu
- Key Laboratory for Evolution of Past Life in Northeast Asia, Ministry of Land and Resources, Paleontological Institute of Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
- Paleontological Museum of Liaoning, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Richard J. Butler
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Wu Q, Liu H, Yang Q, Wei B, Wang L, Tang Q, Wang J, Xi Y, Han C, Wang J, Li L. Developmental Transcriptome Profiling of the Tibial Reveals the Underlying Molecular Basis for Why Newly Hatched Quails Can Walk While Newly Hatched Pigeons Cannot. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:745129. [PMID: 35198553 PMCID: PMC8858812 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.745129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Birds can be classified into altricial and precocial species. The hatchlings of altricial birds cannot stand, whereas precocial birds can walk and run soon after hatching. It might be owing to the development of the hindlimb bones in the embryo stage, but the molecular regulatory basis underlying the divergence is unclear. To address this issue, we chose the altricial pigeon and the precocial Japanese quail as model animals. The data of tibia weight rate, embryonic skeletal staining, and tibia tissues paraffin section during the embryonic stage showed that the Japanese quail and pigeon have similar skeletal development patterns, but the former had a faster calcification rate. We utilized the comparative transcriptome approach to screen the genes and pathways related to this heterochronism. We separately analyzed the gene expression of tibia tissues of quail and pigeon at two consecutive time points from an inability to stand to be able to stand. There were 2910 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of quail, and 1635 DEGs of pigeon, respectively. A total of 409 DEGs in common in the quail and pigeon. On the other hand, we compared the gene expression profiles of pigeons and quails at four time points, and screened out eight pairs of expression profiles with similar expression trends but delayed expression in pigeons. By screening the common genes in each pair of expression profiles, we obtained a gene set consisting of 152 genes. A total of 79 genes were shared by the 409 DEGs and the 152 genes. Gene Ontology analysis of these common genes showed that 21 genes including the COL gene family (COL11A1, COL9A3, COL9A1), IHH, MSX2, SFRP1, ATP6V1B1, SRGN, CTHRC1, NOG, and GDF5 involved in the process of endochondral ossification. These genes were the candidate genes for the difference of tibial development between pigeon and quail. This is the first known study on the embryo skeletal staining in pigeon. It provides some new insights for studying skeletal development mechanisms and locomotor ability of altricial and precocial bird species.
Collapse
|
8
|
Cullen TM, Brown CM, Chiba K, Brink KS, Makovicky PJ, Evans DC. Growth variability, dimensional scaling, and the interpretation of osteohistological growth data. Biol Lett 2021; 17:20210383. [PMID: 34755552 PMCID: PMC8580441 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2021.0383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteohistological data are commonly used to study the life history of extant and extinct tetrapods. While recent advances have permitted detailed reconstructions of growth patterns, physiology and other features using these data, they are most commonly used in assessments of ontogenetic stage and relative growth in extinct animals. These methods have seen widespread adoption in recent years, rapidly becoming a common component of the taxonomic description of new fossil taxa, but are often applied without close consideration of the sources of variation present or the dimensional scaling relationships that exist among different osteohistological measurements. Here, we use a combination of theoretical models and empirical data from a range of extant and extinct tetrapods to review sources of variability in common osteohistological measurements, their dimensional scaling relationships and the resulting interpretations that can be made from those data. In particular, we provide recommendations on the usage and interpretation of growth mark spacing/zonal thickness data, when these are likely to be unreliable, and under what conditions they can provide useful inferences for studies of growth and life history.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M. Cullen
- Ottawa-Carleton Geoscience Centre, Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1S 5B6
- Nagaunee Integrative Research Center, Field Museum of Natural History, 1400 S Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605, USA
| | - Caleb M. Brown
- Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology, PO Box 7500, Drumheller, Alberta, Canada, T0J 0Y0
| | - Kentaro Chiba
- Department of Biosphere-Geosphere Science, Okayama University of Science, 1-1 Ridaicho, Kita-ku, Okayama-shi, 700-0005, Okayama, Japan
| | - Kirstin S. Brink
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Manitoba, 125 Dysart Road, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, R3T 2N2
| | - Peter J. Makovicky
- Nagaunee Integrative Research Center, Field Museum of Natural History, 1400 S Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605, USA
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Minnesota – Twin Cities, 116 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - David C. Evans
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 3B2
- Department of Natural History, Royal Ontario Museum, 100 Queen's Park, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 2C6
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Gownaris NJ, Boersma PD. Feet first: Adaptive growth in magellanic penguin chicks. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:4339-4352. [PMID: 33976814 PMCID: PMC8093740 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Growing animals should allocate their limited resources in ways that maximize survival. Seabird chicks must balance the growth of features and fat reserves needed to survive on land with those needed to successfully fledge and survive at sea. We used a large, 34-year dataset to examine energy allocation in Magellanic penguin chicks. Based on the temporal trends in the selective pressures that chicks faced, we developed predictions relating to the timing of skeletal feature growth (Prediction 1), variation in skeletal feature size and shape (Prediction 2), and responses to periods of high energetic constraint (Prediction 3). We tested our predictions using descriptive statistics, generalized additive models, and principal component analysis. Nearly all of our predictions were supported. Chicks grew their feet first, then their flippers. They continued to grow their bill after fledging (Prediction 1). Variance in feature size increased in young chicks but declined before fledging; this variance was largely driven by overall size rather than by shape (Prediction 2). Chicks that died grew slower and varied more in feature size than those that fledged (Prediction 2). Skeletal features grew rapidly prior to thermoregulation and feet and flippers were 90% grown prior to juvenile feather growth; both thermoregulation and feather growth are energetically expensive (Prediction 3). To avoid starvation, chicks prioritized storing mass during the first 10 days after hatching; then, the body condition of chicks began to decline (Prediction 3). In contrast to our prediction of mass prioritization in young chicks, chicks that were relatively light for their age had high skeletal size to mass ratios. Chicks did not show evidence of reaching physiological growth limits (Prediction 3). By examining energy allocation patterns at fine temporal scales and in the context of detailed natural history data, we provide insight into the trade-offs faced by growing animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natasha J. Gownaris
- Environmental StudiesGettysburg CollegeGettysburgPAUSA
- Department of BiologyUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWAUSA
- Center for Ecosystem SentinelsUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWAUSA
| | - P. Dee Boersma
- Department of BiologyUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWAUSA
- Center for Ecosystem SentinelsUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWAUSA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Waxing and Waning of Wings. Trends Ecol Evol 2021; 36:457-470. [PMID: 33648760 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2021.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A major challenge to Darwinian evolution is explaining 'rudimentary' organs. This is particularly relevant to birds: rudimentary wings occur in fossils, as well as in developing, molting, and flight-impaired birds. Evidence shows that young birds flap small wings to improve locomotion and transition to flight. Although small wings also occur in adults, their potential role in locomotion is rarely considered. Here we describe the prevalence of rudimentary wings in extant birds, and how wings wax and wane on many timescales. This waxing and waning is integral to the avian clade and offers a rich arena for exploring links between form, function, performance, behavior, ecology, and evolution. Although our understanding is nascent, birds clearly show that rudimentary structures can enhance performance and survival.
Collapse
|
11
|
Wang L, Wei X, Liang X, Zhang Z. Ontogenetic changes of hindlimb muscle mass in Cabot's tragopan (Galliformes, Phasianidae) and their functional implications. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2021; 304:2841-2855. [PMID: 33625793 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Cabot's tragopan (Tragopan caboti) is a vulnerable species, endemic to south-east China. It usually nests in trees and is more arboreal than other pheasants, but the myological features related to its arboreal habits are not well known. In the present study, 10 carcasses of this pheasant including hatchling chicks, juveniles, and adults, were dissected to obtain measurements of leg muscle mass, which is an important determinant of force-generation capacity. The results showed that isometry prevailed for growth in muscle mass. Scaling patterns of individual muscles were presumed to correlate with the more arboreal habits of the species. Comparison of muscle mass distribution across age groups demonstrated a distal to proximal gradient in muscle development. A higher percentage of hip and thigh muscles in the adult should be favorable for the birds to maintain an upright standing posture, and to increase speed by means of additional use of femoral retraction. Knee extensors were found to be the most massive among eight functional groups, suggesting that they have a very important role during terrestrial movement. Greater relative mass of digital flexors in hatchling chicks is correlated with breeding ecology, further revealing the importance of grasping ability in the early stages of postnatal development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lin Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Xinsen Wei
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Xinxin Liang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Zihui Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Heers AM, Varghese SL, Hatier LK, Cabrera JJ. Multiple Functional Solutions During Flightless to Flight-Capable Transitions. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2020.573411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of avian flight is one of the great transformations in vertebrate history, marked by striking anatomical changes that presumably help meet the demands of aerial locomotion. These changes did not occur simultaneously, and are challenging to decipher. Although extinct theropods are most often compared to adult birds, studies show that developing birds can uniquely address certain challenges and provide powerful insights into the evolution of avian flight: unlike adults, immature birds have rudimentary, somewhat “dinosaur-like” flight apparatuses and can reveal relationships between form, function, performance, and behavior during flightless to flight-capable transitions. Here, we focus on the musculoskeletal apparatus and use CT scans coupled with a three-dimensional musculoskeletal modeling approach to analyze how ontogenetic changes in skeletal anatomy influence muscle size, leverage, orientation, and corresponding function during the development of flight in a precocial ground bird (Alectoris chukar). Our results demonstrate that immature and adult birds use different functional solutions to execute similar locomotor behaviors: in spite of dramatic changes in skeletal morphology, muscle paths and subsequent functions are largely maintained through ontogeny, because shifts in one bone are offset by changes in others. These findings help provide a viable mechanism for how extinct winged theropods with rudimentary pectoral skeletons might have achieved bird-like behaviors before acquiring fully bird-like anatomies. These findings also emphasize the importance of a holistic, whole-body perspective, and the need for extant validation of extinct behaviors and performance. As empirical studies on locomotor ontogeny accumulate, it is becoming apparent that traditional, isolated interpretations of skeletal anatomy mask the reality that integrated whole systems function in frequently unexpected yet effective ways. Collaborative and integrative efforts that address this challenge will surely strengthen our exploration of life and its evolutionary history.
Collapse
|
13
|
Yan J, Zhang Z. Post-hatching growth of the limbs in an altricial bird species. Vet Med Sci 2020; 7:210-218. [PMID: 32937037 PMCID: PMC7840189 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The fore‐ and hindlimbs of birds are specialized to perform different functions. The growth patterns of limb bones and their relationship with the ontogeny of locomotion are critical to our understanding of variation in morphological, physiological and life‐history traits within and among species. Unfortunately, the ontogenetic development of limb bones has not been well explored, especially in altricial birds. In this study, we sampled the entire measurements of the pigeon (Columba livia) of individual skeletons, to investigate the ontogenetic allometry of limb bones by reduced major axis regression. The ulna and humerus were found to be positively allometric in relation to body mass, with the ulna growing more rapidly than the humerus. Together with previous data, this suggests that strong positive allometric growth in forelimb bones could be a common trend among diverse Carinatae groups. Hindlimb was dominated by positive allometry, but was variable in the growth of the tarsometatarsus which included three allometric patterns. A greater dorsoventral diameter in the midsection of the humerus and ulna confers superior bending resistance and is ideal for flapping/gliding flight. Shape variation in the midsection of different hindlimb components reflects different mechanical loading, and the markedly inverse trend between the tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus before 28 days of age also suggests loading change before fledging. Before fledging, the growth of the leg bones was prior to that of the wing bones. This kind of asynchronous development of the fore‐ and hindlimbs was associated with the establishment and improvement of different functions, and with shifts in the importance of different functions over time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jianjian Yan
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Zihui Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
McGuire RS, Ourfalian R, Ezell K, Lee AH. Development of limb bone laminarity in the homing pigeon ( Columba livia). PeerJ 2020; 8:e9878. [PMID: 33194361 PMCID: PMC7485507 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.9878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Birds show adaptations in limb bone shape that are associated with resisting locomotor loads. Whether comparable adaptations occur in the microstructure of avian cortical bone is less clear. One proposed microstructural adaptation is laminar bone in which the proportion of circumferentially-oriented vascular canals (i.e., laminarity) is large. Previous work on adult birds shows elevated laminarity in specific limb elements of some taxa, presumably to resist torsion-induced shear strain during locomotion. However, more recent analyses using improved measurements in adult birds and bats reveal lower laminarity than expected in bones associated with torsional loading. Even so, there may still be support for the resistance hypothesis if laminarity increases with growth and locomotor maturation. Methods Here, we tested that hypothesis using a growth series of 17 homing pigeons (15–563 g). Torsional rigidity and laminarity of limb bones were measured from histological sections sampled from midshaft. Ontogenetic trends in laminarity were assessed using principal component analysis to reduce dimensionality followed by beta regression with a logit link function. Results We found that torsional rigidity of limb bones increases disproportionately with growth, consistent with rapid structural compensation associated with locomotor maturation. However, laminarity decreases with maturity, weakening the hypothesis that high laminarity is a flight adaptation at least in the pigeon. Instead, the histological results suggest that low laminarity, specifically the relative proportion of longitudinal canals aligned with peak principal strains, may better reflect the loading history of a bone.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rylee S McGuire
- Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Raffi Ourfalian
- Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA.,Kaiser Permanente Los Angeles Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Kelly Ezell
- Department of Anatomy, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Andrew H Lee
- Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA.,Department of Anatomy, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA.,College of Veterinary Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Ruaux G, Lumineau S, de Margerie E. The development of flight behaviours in birds. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20200668. [PMID: 32576105 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.0668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Flight is a unique adaptation at the core of many behaviours in most bird species, whether it be foraging, migration or breeding. Birds have developed a wide diversity of flight modes (e.g. flapping, gliding, soaring, hovering) which involves very specialized behaviours. A key issue when studying flight behaviours is to understand how they develop through all the ontogenetic stages of birds, from the embryo to the flying adult. This question typically involves classical debates on animal behaviour about the importance of maturation and experience. Here, we review the literature available on the development of flight behaviours in birds. First, we focus on the early period when young birds are not yet capable of flight. We discuss examples and show how endogenous processes (e.g. wing flapping in the nest, flight development timing) and environmental factors (e.g. maternal stress, nutritional stress) can influence the development of flight behaviours. Then, we review several examples showing the different processes involved in the development of flight in flight-capable juveniles (e.g. practice, trial and error learning, social learning). Despite the lack of experimental studies investigating this specific question at different developmental stages, we show that several patterns can be identified, and we anticipate that the development of new tracking techniques will allow us to study this question more thoroughly in more bird species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey Ruaux
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Sophie Lumineau
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Emmanuel de Margerie
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000 Rennes, France
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Palma Liberona JA, Soto-Acuña S, Mendez MA, Vargas AO. Assesment and interpretation of negative forelimb allometry in the evolution of non-avian Theropoda. Front Zool 2019; 16:44. [PMID: 31827570 PMCID: PMC6889632 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-019-0342-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The origin of birds is marked by a significant decrease in body size along with an increase in relative forelimb size. However, before the evolution of flight, both traits may have already been related: It has been proposed that an evolutionary trend of negative forelimb allometry existed in non-avian Theropoda, such that larger species often have relatively shorter forelimbs. Nevertheless, several exceptions exist, calling for rigorous phylogenetic statistical testing. Results Here, we re-assessed allometric patterns in the evolution of non-avian theropods, for the first time taking into account the non-independence among related species due to shared evolutionary history.We confirmed a main evolutionary trend of negative forelimb allometry for non-avian Theropoda, but also found support that some specific subclades (Coelophysoidea, Ornithomimosauria, and Oviraptorosauria) exhibit allometric trends that are closer to isometry, losing the ancestral negative forelimb allometry present in Theropoda as a whole. Conclusions Explanations for negative forelimb allometry in the evolution of non-avian theropods have not been discussed, yet evolutionary allometric trends often reflect ontogenetic allometries, which suggests negative allometry of the forelimb in the ontogeny of most non-avian theropods. In modern birds, allometric growth of the limbs is related to locomotor and behavioral changes along ontogeny. After reviewing the evidence for such changes during the ontogeny of non-avian dinosaurs, we propose that proportionally longer arms of juveniles became adult traits in the small-sized and paedomorphic Aves.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- José A Palma Liberona
- 1Laboratorio de Ontogenia y Filogenia, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile., Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago, Chile
| | - Sergio Soto-Acuña
- 1Laboratorio de Ontogenia y Filogenia, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile., Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago, Chile
| | - Marco A Mendez
- 2Laboratorio de Genética y Evolución, Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile., Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alexander O Vargas
- 1Laboratorio de Ontogenia y Filogenia, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile., Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago, Chile
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Prondvai E, Witten PE, Abourachid A, Huysseune A, Adriaens D. Extensive chondroid bone in juvenile duck limbs hints at accelerated growth mechanism in avian skeletogenesis. J Anat 2019; 236:463-473. [PMID: 31670843 PMCID: PMC7018642 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Modern altricial birds are the fastest growing vertebrates, whereas various degrees of precocity (functional maturity) result in slower growth. Diaphyseal osteohistology, the best proxy for inferring relative growth rates in fossils, suggests that in the earliest birds, posthatching growth rates were more variable than in modern representatives, with some showing considerably slow growth that was attributed to their assumed precocial flight abilities. For finding clues how precocial or altricial skeletogenesis and related growth acceleration could be traced in avian evolution, as a case study we investigated the growing limb diaphyseal histology in an ontogenetic series of ducks which, among several other avian taxa, show a combination of altricial wing and precocial leg development. Here we report the unexpected discovery that chondroid bone, a skeletal tissue family intermediate between cartilage and bone, extensively contributes to the development of limb bone shaft in ducks up to at least 30 days posthatching age. To our knowledge, chondroid bone has never been reported in such quantities and with an ontogenetically extended deposition period in post‐embryonic, non‐pathological periosteal bone formation of any tetrapod limb. It shows transitional cellular/lacunar morphologies and matrix staining properties between cartilage and woven bone and takes a significant part in the diametric growth of the limb bone shaft. Its amount and distribution through duckling ontogeny seems to be associated with the disparate functional and growth trajectories of the altricial wings vs. precocial legs characteristic of duck limb development. The presence of isogenous cell groups in the periosteal chondroid bone implies that cartilage‐like interstitial growth took place before matrix mineralization complementing appositional bone growth. Based on these characteristics and on its fast formation rate in all previously reported normal as well as pathological cases, we suggest that chondroid bone in ducks significantly accelerates diametric limb bone growth. Related to this growth acceleration, we hypothesize that chondroid bone may be generally present in the growing limb bones of modern birds and hence may have key skeletogenic importance in achieving extreme avian growth rates and placing birds among the fastest growing vertebrates. Thus, we encourage future studies to test this hypothesis by investigating the occurrence of chondroid bone in a variety of precocial and altricial bird species, and to explore the presence of similar tissues in the growing limbs of other extant and extinct tetrapods in order to understand the evolutionary significance of chondroid bone in accelerated appendicular skeletogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edina Prondvai
- Department of Biology, Evolutionary Morphology of Vertebrates, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,MTA-MTM-ELTE Research Group for Paleontology, Budapest, Hungary
| | - P Eckhard Witten
- Department of Biology, Evolutionary Developmental Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Anick Abourachid
- Département Adaptations du Vivant, UMR 7179 Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle - CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Ann Huysseune
- Department of Biology, Evolutionary Developmental Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Dominique Adriaens
- Department of Biology, Evolutionary Morphology of Vertebrates, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Channon SB, Young IS, Cordner B, Swann N. Ontogenetic scaling of pelvic limb muscles, tendons and locomotor economy in the ostrich ( Struthio camelus). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:jeb.182741. [PMID: 31350301 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.182741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
In rapidly growing animals there are numerous selective pressures and developmental constraints underpinning the ontogenetic development of muscle-tendon morphology and mechanical properties. Muscle force generating capacity, tendon stiffness, elastic energy storage capacity and efficiency were calculated from muscle and tendon morphological parameters and in vitro tendon mechanical properties obtained from a growth series of ostrich cadavers. Ontogenetic scaling relationships were established using reduced major axis regression analysis. Ostrich pelvic limb muscle mass and cross-sectional area broadly scaled with positive allometry, indicating maintained or relatively greater capacity for maximum isometric force generation in larger animals. The length of distal limb tendons was found to scale with positive allometry in several tendons associated with antigravity support and elastic energy storage during locomotion. Distal limb tendon stiffness scaled with negative allometry with respect to body mass, with tendons being relatively more compliant in larger birds. Tendon material properties also appeared to be size-dependent, suggesting that the relative increased compliance of tendons in larger ostriches is due in part to compensatory distortions in tendon material properties during maturation and development, not simply from ontogenetic changes in tendon geometry. Our results suggest that the previously reported increase in locomotor economy through ontogeny in the ostrich is due to greater potential for elastic energy storage with increasing body size. In fact, the rate of this increase may be somewhat greater than the conservative predictions of previous studies, thus illustrating the biological importance of elastic tendon structures in adult ostriches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah B Channon
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Royal College Street, London NW1 0TU, UK
| | - Iain S Young
- Institute of Integrative Biology, Department of Functional and Comparative Genomics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
| | - Beckie Cordner
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Royal College Street, London NW1 0TU, UK
| | - Nicola Swann
- Nicola Swann, Department of Applied and Human Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University London, Kingston-on-Thames KT1 2EE, UK
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Affiliation(s)
- M. Iijima
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering Hefei University of Technology Hefei China
| | - T. Kubo
- The University Museum The University of Tokyo Tokyo Japan
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Watanabe J. Clade-specific evolutionary diversification along ontogenetic major axes in avian limb skeleton. Evolution 2018; 72:2632-2652. [PMID: 30328113 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Revised: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The evolutionary diversification of birds has been facilitated by specializations for various locomotor modes, with which the proportion of the limb skeleton is closely associated. However, recent studies have identified phylogenetic signals in this system, suggesting the presence of historical factors that have affected its evolutionary variability. In this study, to explore potential roles of ontogenetic integration in biasing the evolution in the avian limb skeleton, evolutionary diversification patterns in six avian families (Anatidae, Procellariidae, Ardeidae, Phalacrocoracidae, Laridae, and Alcidae) were examined and compared to the postnatal ontogenetic trajectories in those taxa, based on measurement of 2641 specimens and recently collected ontogenetic series, supplemented by published data. Morphometric analyses of lengths of six limb bones (humerus, ulna, carpometacarpus, femur, tibiotarsus, and tarsometatarsus) demonstrated that: (1) ontogenetic trajectories are diverse among families; (2) evolutionary diversification is significantly anisotropic; and, most importantly, (3) major axes of evolutionary diversification are correlated with clade-specific ontogenetic major axes in the shape space. These results imply that the evolutionary variability of the avian limbs has been biased along the clade-specific ontogenetic trajectories. It may explain peculiar diversification patterns characteristic to some avian groups, including the long-leggedness in Ardeidae and tendency for flightlessness in Anatidae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junya Watanabe
- Department of Geology and Mineralogy, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Heers AM, Rankin JW, Hutchinson JR. Building a Bird: Musculoskeletal Modeling and Simulation of Wing-Assisted Incline Running During Avian Ontogeny. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2018; 6:140. [PMID: 30406089 PMCID: PMC6205952 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2018.00140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Flapping flight is the most power-demanding mode of locomotion, associated with a suite of anatomical specializations in extant adult birds. In contrast, many developing birds use their forelimbs to negotiate environments long before acquiring "flight adaptations," recruiting their developing wings to continuously enhance leg performance and, in some cases, fly. How does anatomical development influence these locomotor behaviors? Isolating morphological contributions to wing performance is extremely challenging using purely empirical approaches. However, musculoskeletal modeling and simulation techniques can incorporate empirical data to explicitly examine the functional consequences of changing morphology by manipulating anatomical parameters individually and estimating their effects on locomotion. To assess how ontogenetic changes in anatomy affect locomotor capacity, we combined existing empirical data on muscle morphology, skeletal kinematics, and aerodynamic force production with advanced biomechanical modeling and simulation techniques to analyze the ontogeny of pectoral limb function in a precocial ground bird (Alectoris chukar). Simulations of wing-assisted incline running (WAIR) using these newly developed musculoskeletal models collectively suggest that immature birds have excess muscle capacity and are limited more by feather morphology, possibly because feathers grow more quickly and have a different style of growth than bones and muscles. These results provide critical information about the ontogeny and evolution of avian locomotion by (i) establishing how muscular and aerodynamic forces interface with the skeletal system to generate movement in morphing juvenile birds, and (ii) providing a benchmark to inform biomechanical modeling and simulation of other locomotor behaviors, both across extant species and among extinct theropod dinosaurs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ashley M Heers
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States.,Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Jeffery W Rankin
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom.,Pathokinesiology Laboratory, Rancho Los Amigos National Rehabilitation Hospital, Downey, CA, United States
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Liang X, Yu J, Wang H, Zhang Z. Post-Hatching Growth of the Pectoralis Muscle in Pigeon and Its Functional Implications. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 301:1564-1569. [PMID: 29729220 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Revised: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The avian pectoralis muscle is responsible for the wing's downstroke, which provides birds with lift and thrust for flight. In the present study, architectural parameters were investigated through growth in the pigeon (Columba livia), an altricial bird species, from the ages of 4 days to 12 months, in order to assess the morphological changes and effects of increasing body mass. Muscle mass, fascicle length (FL), and physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) increased with strong positive allometry. As an indicator of force production capacity, the PCSA increased 30-fold with the changes in body mass; it grew rapidly during the nesting period and post-fledging period into sexual maturity. The growth pattern of FL demonstrated a gradual increase before fledging and a marked increase after maturity. Taken together, the growth of the pectoralis was found to be dominated by a continuous increase in PCSA before maturity and subsequent increase in FL. These features were associated with the establishment and improvement of flight capability, and further revealed different strategies in maintaining relatively constant power prior to and after maturity. Anat Rec, 301:1564-1569, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xinxin Liang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Jiali Yu
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Huan Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Zihui Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Dial TR, Reznick DN, Brainerd EL. Heterochrony in the evolution of Trinidadian guppy offspring size: maturation along a uniform ontogenetic trajectory. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 284:rspb.2017.1319. [PMID: 29021173 PMCID: PMC5647296 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.1319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The size and maturity of Trinidadian guppy (Poecilia reticulata) offspring vary among populations adapted to environments of differential predation. Guppy offspring born to low-predation, high-competition environments are larger and more mature than their high-predation ancestors. Here we ask: what specific changes in developmental or birth timing occur to produce the larger, more mature neonates? We collected specimens across the perinatal window of development from five populations and quantified musculoskeletal maturation. We found that all populations undergo similar ontogenetic trajectories in skeletal and muscle acquisition; the only difference among populations is when neonates emerge along the trajectory. The smallest neonates are born with 20% of their skeleton ossified, whereas the largest neonates are born with over 70% of their skeleton ossified. The area of the major jaw-closing muscle is relatively larger in larger offspring, scaling with length as L2.5. The size range over which offspring are birthed among populations sits along the steepest part of the size–maturity relationship, which provides a large marginal increase in fitness for the high-competition female. Because of the functional effects of producing more mature offspring at birth, offspring size may be the first and most critical life-history trait selected upon in highly competitive environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T R Dial
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - D N Reznick
- Department of Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - E L Brainerd
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Prondvai E, Godefroit P, Adriaens D, Hu DY. Intraskeletal histovariability, allometric growth patterns, and their functional implications in bird-like dinosaurs. Sci Rep 2018; 8:258. [PMID: 29321475 PMCID: PMC5762864 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-18218-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
With their elongated forelimbs and variable aerial skills, paravian dinosaurs, a clade also comprising modern birds, are in the hotspot of vertebrate evolutionary research. Inferences on the early evolution of flight largely rely on bone and feather morphology, while osteohistological traits are usually studied to explore life-history characteristics. By sampling and comparing multiple homologous fore- and hind limb elements, we integrate for the first time qualitative and quantitative osteohistological approaches to get insight into the intraskeletal growth dynamics and their functional implications in five paravian dinosaur taxa, Anchiornis, Aurornis, Eosinopteryx, Serikornis, and Jeholornis. Our qualitative assessment implies a considerable diversity in allometric/isometric growth patterns among these paravians. Quantitative analyses show that neither taxa nor homologous elements have characteristic histology, and that ontogenetic stage, element size and the newly introduced relative element precocity only partially explain the diaphyseal histovariability. Still, Jeholornis, the only avialan studied here, is histologically distinct from all other specimens in the multivariate visualizations raising the hypothesis that its bone tissue characteristics may be related to its superior aerial capabilities compared to the non-avialan paravians. Our results warrant further research on the osteohistological correlates of flight and developmental strategies in birds and bird-like dinosaurs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edina Prondvai
- Evolutionary Morphology of Vertebrates, Department of Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Pascal Godefroit
- Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Directorate 'Earth and History of Life', Brussels, Belgium
| | - Dominique Adriaens
- Evolutionary Morphology of Vertebrates, Department of Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Dong-Yu Hu
- Paleontological Institute, Shenyang Normal University, Key Laboratory for Evolution of Past Life in Northeast Asia, Ministry of Land and Resources, Shenyang, China
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Tobalske BW, Jackson BE, Dial KP. Ontogeny of Flight Capacity and Pectoralis Function in a Precocial Ground Bird (Alectoris chukar). Integr Comp Biol 2017; 57:217-230. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icx050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
|
26
|
Desprat JL, Teulier L, Puijalon S, Dumet A, Romestaing C, Tattersall GJ, Lengagne T, Mondy N. Doping for sex: Bad for mitochondrial performances? Case of testosterone supplemented Hyla arborea during the courtship period. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2017; 209:74-83. [PMID: 28478209 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2017.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 04/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Sexual selection has been widely explored from numerous perspectives, including behavior, ecology, and to a lesser extent, energetics. Hormones, and specifically androgens such as testosterone, are known to trigger sexual behaviors. Their effects are therefore of interest during the breeding period. Our work investigates the effect of testosterone on the relationship between cellular bioenergetics and contractile properties of two skeletal muscles involved in sexual selection in tree frogs. Calling and locomotor abilities are considered evidence of good condition in Hyla males, and thus server as proxies for male quality and attractiveness. Therefore, how these behaviors are powered efficiently remains of both physiological and behavioral interest. Most previous research, however, has focused primarily on biomechanics, contractile properties or mitochondrial enzyme activities. Some have tried to establish a relationship between those parameters but to our knowledge, there is no study examining muscle fiber bioenergetics in Hyla arborea. Using chronic testosterone supplementation and through an integrative study combining fiber bioenergetics and contractile properties, we compared sexually dimorphic trunk muscles directly linked to chronic sound production to a hindlimb muscle (i.e. gastrocnemius) that is particularly adapted for explosive movement. As expected, trunk muscle bioenergetics were more affected by testosterone than gastrocnemius muscle. Our study also underlines contrasted energetic capacities between muscles, in line with contractile properties of these two different muscle phenotypes. The discrepancy of both substrate utilization and contractile properties is consistent with the specific role of each muscle and our results are elucidating another integrative example of a muscle force-endurance trade-off.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julia L Desprat
- Université de Lyon, UMR5023 Ecologie des Hydrosystèmes Naturels et Anthropisés, Université Lyon 1, ENTPE, CNRS, 6 rue Raphaël Dubois, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Loïc Teulier
- Université de Lyon, UMR5023 Ecologie des Hydrosystèmes Naturels et Anthropisés, Université Lyon 1, ENTPE, CNRS, 6 rue Raphaël Dubois, 69622 Villeurbanne, France.
| | - Sara Puijalon
- Université de Lyon, UMR5023 Ecologie des Hydrosystèmes Naturels et Anthropisés, Université Lyon 1, ENTPE, CNRS, 6 rue Raphaël Dubois, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Adeline Dumet
- Université de Lyon, UMR5023 Ecologie des Hydrosystèmes Naturels et Anthropisés, Université Lyon 1, ENTPE, CNRS, 6 rue Raphaël Dubois, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Caroline Romestaing
- Université de Lyon, UMR5023 Ecologie des Hydrosystèmes Naturels et Anthropisés, Université Lyon 1, ENTPE, CNRS, 6 rue Raphaël Dubois, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Glenn J Tattersall
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S3A1, Canada
| | - Thierry Lengagne
- Université de Lyon, UMR5023 Ecologie des Hydrosystèmes Naturels et Anthropisés, Université Lyon 1, ENTPE, CNRS, 6 rue Raphaël Dubois, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Nathalie Mondy
- Université de Lyon, UMR5023 Ecologie des Hydrosystèmes Naturels et Anthropisés, Université Lyon 1, ENTPE, CNRS, 6 rue Raphaël Dubois, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Duggan BM, Hocking PM, Clements DN. Gait in ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) and chickens (Gallus gallus) - similarities in adaptation to high growth rate. Biol Open 2016; 5:1077-85. [PMID: 27387535 PMCID: PMC5004611 DOI: 10.1242/bio.018614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic selection for increased growth rate and muscle mass in broiler chickens has been accompanied by mobility issues and poor gait. There are concerns that the Pekin duck, which is on a similar selection trajectory (for production traits) to the broiler chicken, may encounter gait problems in the future. In order to understand how gait has been altered by selection, the walking ability of divergent lines of high- and low-growth chickens and ducks was objectively measured using a pressure platform, which recorded various components of their gait. In both species, lines which had been selected for large breast muscle mass moved at a slower velocity and with a greater step width than their lighter conspecifics. These high-growth lines also spent more time supported by two feet in order to improve balance when compared with their lighter, low-growth conspecifics. We demonstrate that chicken and duck lines which have been subjected to intense selection for high growth rates and meat yields have adapted their gait in similar ways. A greater understanding of which components of gait have been altered in selected lines with impaired walking ability may lead to more effective breeding strategies to improve gait in poultry. Summary: Different bird species bred for meat production have adapted their gait in similar ways to handle the extra loads imposed on their legs by larger muscle masses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- B M Duggan
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - P M Hocking
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - D N Clements
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Heers AM. New Perspectives on the Ontogeny and Evolution of Avian Locomotion. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:428-41. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
|
29
|
Young JW, Heard-Booth AN. Grasping primate development: Ontogeny of intrinsic hand and foot proportions in capuchin monkeys (Cebus albifronsandSapajus apella). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2016; 161:104-15. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Revised: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology; Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED); Rootstown Ohio 44272
- Musculoskeletal Biology Research Focus Area, NEOMED; Rootstown Ohio 44272
- School of Biomedical Sciences; Kent State University; Kent Ohio 44240
| | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Heers AM, Baier DB, Jackson BE, Dial KP. Flapping before Flight: High Resolution, Three-Dimensional Skeletal Kinematics of Wings and Legs during Avian Development. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153446. [PMID: 27100994 PMCID: PMC4872793 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2015] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Some of the greatest transformations in vertebrate history involve developmental
and evolutionary origins of avian flight. Flight is the most power-demanding
mode of locomotion, and volant adult birds have many anatomical features that
presumably help meet these demands. However, juvenile birds, like the first
winged dinosaurs, lack many hallmarks of advanced flight capacity. Instead of
large wings they have small “protowings”, and instead of robust, interlocking
forelimb skeletons their limbs are more gracile and their joints less
constrained. Such traits are often thought to preclude extinct theropods from
powered flight, yet young birds with similarly rudimentary anatomies flap-run up
slopes and even briefly fly, thereby challenging longstanding ideas on skeletal
and feather function in the theropod-avian lineage. Though skeletons and
feathers are the common link between extinct and extant theropods and figure
prominently in discussions on flight performance (extant birds) and flight
origins (extinct theropods), skeletal inter-workings are hidden from view and
their functional relationship with aerodynamically active wings is not known.
For the first time, we use X-ray Reconstruction of Moving Morphology to
visualize skeletal movement in developing birds, and explore how development of
the avian flight apparatus corresponds with ontogenetic trajectories in skeletal
kinematics, aerodynamic performance, and the locomotor transition from
pre-flight flapping behaviors to full flight capacity. Our findings reveal that
developing chukars (Alectoris chukar) with rudimentary flight
apparatuses acquire an “avian” flight stroke early in ontogeny, initially by
using their wings and legs cooperatively and, as they acquire flight capacity,
counteracting ontogenetic increases in aerodynamic output with greater skeletal
channelization. In conjunction with previous work, juvenile birds thereby
demonstrate that the initial function of developing wings is to enhance leg
performance, and that aerodynamically active, flapping wings might better be
viewed as adaptations or exaptations for enhancing leg performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ashley M. Heers
- Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, Central
Park West and 79 St., New York, New York 10024, United States of
America
- * E-mail:
| | - David B. Baier
- Department of Biology, Providence College, 1 Cunningham Square,
Providence, Rhode Island 02918, United States of America
| | - Brandon E. Jackson
- Biology and Environmental Sciences, Longwood University, 201 High St.,
Farmville, Virginia 23909, United States of America
| | - Kenneth P. Dial
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, 32 Campus Drive,
Missoula, Montana 59812, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Rose KA, Bates KT, Nudds RL, Codd JR. Ontogeny of sex differences in the energetics and kinematics of terrestrial locomotion in leghorn chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus). Sci Rep 2016; 6:24292. [PMID: 27068682 PMCID: PMC4828670 DOI: 10.1038/srep24292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex differences in locomotor performance may precede the onset of sexual maturity and/or arise concomitantly with secondary sex characteristics. Here, we present the first study to quantify the terrestrial locomotor morphology, energetics and kinematics in a species, either side of sexual maturation. In domestic leghorn chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) sexual maturation brings about permanent female gravidity and increased male hind limb muscle mass. We found that the sexes of a juvenile cohort of leghorns shared similar maximum sustainable speeds, while in a sexually mature cohort maximum sustainable speeds were greater by 67% (males) and 34% (females). Furthermore, relative to that in juveniles of the same sex, the absolute duration of leg swing was longer in mature males and shorter in mature females. Consequently, the proportion of a stride that each limb was in contact with the ground (duty factor) was higher in sexually mature females compared to males. Modulation of the duty factor with the development of secondary sex characteristics may act to minimize mechanical work in males; and minimise mechanical power and/or peak force in females. A greater incremental response of mass-specific metabolic power to speed in males compared to females was common to both age cohorts and, therefore, likely results from physiological sexual dimorphisms that precede sexual maturation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K. A. Rose
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M139PT, UK
| | - K. T. Bates
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M139PT, UK
| | - R. L. Nudds
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M139PT, UK
| | - J. R. Codd
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M139PT, UK
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Duggan BM, Hocking PM, Schwarz T, Clements DN. Differences in hindlimb morphology of ducks and chickens: effects of domestication and selection. Genet Sel Evol 2015; 47:88. [PMID: 26576729 PMCID: PMC4647608 DOI: 10.1186/s12711-015-0166-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Poultry account for the most numerous species farmed for meat and have been subject to intense selection over approximately 60 generations. To assess morphological changes which have occurred in the avian leg due to selection for rapid growth and high meat yields, divergent lines of chicken (Gallus gallus) and duck (Anas platyrhynchos) were studied between 3 and 7 weeks of age. For each line, femoral and tibiotarsal morphology was recorded using computed tomography scanning and tibiotarsal bone quality measures (stiffness, bending stress and porosity) were assessed. Results In chicken and duck, divergence in hindlimb morphology has occurred in the commercial meat lines compared to their lighter conspecifics. As expected, the differences were largest between species. Leg development nears completion much earlier in ducks than in chickens. Duck tibiotarsi showed a large degree of lateral curvature, which is expected to affect foot position during swimming and walking, and thus to influence gait. All lines have adapted their tibiotarsal morphology to suit the loading forces they experience; however bone quality was found to be poorer in chickens. Conclusions We demonstrate that intensive selection for growth rate in both chickens and ducks has resulted in leg morphology changes, which are likely to influence gait. Ducks represent an interesting compromise of adaptation for efficient locomotion in two media—on land and in water. Some aspects of bone morphology in the duck, such as lateral curvature of the tibiotarsus, may result from adaptation to swimming, which potentially imposes limitations on terrestrial locomotion. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12711-015-0166-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brendan M Duggan
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK.
| | - Paul M Hocking
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK.
| | - Tobias Schwarz
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK.
| | - Dylan N Clements
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Javůrková V, Krkavcová E, Kreisinger J, Hyršl P, Hyánková L. Effects of experimentally increased in ovo lysozyme on egg hatchability, chicks complement activity, and phenotype in a precocial bird. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [PMID: 26205223 DOI: 10.1002/jez.1935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In birds, spectrum of egg white proteins deposited into the egg during its formation are thought to be essential maternal effects. Particularly, egg white lysozyme (LSM), exhibiting great between and within species variability, is considered to be essential for developing avian embryos due to its physiological, antimicrobial, and innate immune defense functions. However, there have been few studies investigating effects of LSM on early post-hatching phenotype, despite its broad physiological and protective role during embryogenesis. Here, we test how experimentally increased concentrations of egg white LSM affect hatchability in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) and chick phenotype immediately after hatching (particularly body weight, tarsus length, plasma LSM concentration, and plasma complement activity). Chicks from eggs with increased LSM concentration displayed reduced tarsus length compared to chicks from control eggs while hatchability, body weight and plasma LSM concentration were unaffected. It is worth noting that no effect of increased in ovo lysozyme on eggs hatchability could be related to pathogen-free environment during artificial incubation of experimental eggs causing minimal pressure on embryo viability. While tangible in vivo mechanisms during avian embryogenesis remain to be tested, our study is the first to document experimentally that egg white LSM appears to have growth-regulation role during embryo development, with possible underlying phenotypic consequences in the early post-hatching period in precocial birds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Javůrková
- Department of Zoology, Biodiversity Research Group, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague 2, Czech Republic.,The Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Biology v.v.i., Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Krkavcová
- Department of Zoology, Biodiversity Research Group, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Jakub Kreisinger
- Department of Zoology, Biodiversity Research Group, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague 2, Czech Republic.,Department of Biodiversity and Molecular Ecology, Fondazione Edmund Mach, Research and Innovation Centre, Trentino, Italy
| | - Pavel Hyršl
- Department of Animal Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Experimental Biology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ludmila Hyánková
- Department of Genetics and breeding of farm animals, Institute of Animal Science, Prague, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Evangelista D, Cam S, Huynh T, Krivitskiy I, Dudley R. Ontogeny of aerial righting and wing flapping in juvenile birds. Biol Lett 2015; 10:rsbl.2014.0497. [PMID: 25165451 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2014.0497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanisms of aerial righting in juvenile chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) were studied from hatching to 14 days-post-hatching (dph). Asymmetric movements of the wings were used from 1 to 8 dph to effect progressively more successful righting behaviour via body roll. Following 8 dph, wing motions transitioned to bilaterally symmetric flapping that yielded aerial righting via nose-down pitch, along with substantial increases in vertical force production during descent. Ontogenetically, the use of such wing motions to effect aerial righting precedes both symmetric flapping and a previously documented behaviour in chukar (i.e. wing-assisted incline running) hypothesized to be relevant to incipient flight evolution in birds. These findings highlight the importance of asymmetric wing activation and controlled aerial manoeuvres during bird development and are potentially relevant to understanding the origins of avian flight.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Evangelista
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Sharlene Cam
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Tony Huynh
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Igor Krivitskiy
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Robert Dudley
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Panama
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Heers AM, Dial KP. Wings versus legs in the avian bauplan: development and evolution of alternative locomotor strategies. Evolution 2015; 69:305-20. [PMID: 25494705 DOI: 10.1111/evo.12576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Wings have long been regarded as a hallmark of evolutionary innovation, allowing insects, birds, and bats to radiate into aerial environments. For many groups, our intuitive and colloquial perspective is that wings function for aerial activities, and legs for terrestrial, in a relatively independent manner. However, insects and birds often engage their wings and legs cooperatively. In addition, the degree of autonomy between wings and legs may be constrained by tradeoffs, between allocating resources to wings versus legs during development, or between wing versus leg investment and performance (because legs must be carried as baggage by wings during flight and vice versa). Such tradeoffs would profoundly affect the development and evolution of locomotor strategies, and many related aspects of animal ecology. Here, we provide the first evaluation of wing versus leg investment, performance and relative use, in birds-both across species, and during ontogeny in three precocial species with different ecologies. Our results suggest that tradeoffs between wing and leg modules help shape ontogenetic and evolutionary trajectories, but can be offset by recruiting modules cooperatively. These findings offer a new paradigm for exploring locomotor strategies of flying organisms and their extinct precursors, and thereby elucidating some of the most spectacular diversity in animal history.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ashley M Heers
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL97TA, United Kingdom.
| | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Gough W, Farina SC, Fish FE. Aquatic burst locomotion by hydroplaning and paddling in common eiders (Somateria mollissima). J Exp Biol 2015; 218:1632-8. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.114140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Common eiders (Somateria mollissima) are heavy sea-ducks that spend a large portion of their time swimming at the water surface. Surface swimming generates a bow and hull wave that can constructively interfere and produce wave drag. The speed at which the wavelengths of these waves equal the waterline length of the swimming animal is the hull speed. To increase surface swimming speed beyond the hull speed, an animal must overtake the bow wave. This study found two distinct behaviors that eider ducks used to exceed the hull speed: (1) “steaming,” which involved rapid oaring with the wings to propel the duck along the surface of the water, and (2) “paddle-assisted flying,” during which the ducks lifted their bodies out of the water and used their hind feet to paddle against the surface while flapping their wings in the air. An average hull speed (0.732±0.046 ms−1) was calculated for Somateria mollissima by measuring maximum waterline length from museum specimens. On average, steaming ducks swam 5.5 times faster and paddle-assisted flying ducks moved 6.8 times faster than the hull speed. During steaming, ducks exceeded the hull speed by increasing their body angle and generating dynamic lift to overcome wave drag and hydroplane along the water surface. During paddle-assisted flying, ducks kept their bodies out of the water, thereby avoiding the limitations of wave drag altogether. Both behaviors provided alternatives to flight for these ducks by allowing them to exceed the hull speed while staying at or near the water surface.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William Gough
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, USA
| | - Stacy C. Farina
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Lamas LP, Main RP, Hutchinson JR. Ontogenetic scaling patterns and functional anatomy of the pelvic limb musculature in emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae). PeerJ 2014; 2:e716. [PMID: 25551028 PMCID: PMC4277488 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae) are exclusively terrestrial, bipedal and cursorial ratites with some similar biomechanical characteristics to humans. Their growth rates are impressive, as their body mass increases eighty-fold from hatching to adulthood whilst maintaining the same mode of locomotion throughout life. These ontogenetic characteristics stimulate biomechanical questions about the strategies that allow emus to cope with their rapid growth and locomotion, which can be partly addressed via scaling (allometric) analysis of morphology. In this study we have collected pelvic limb anatomical data (muscle architecture, tendon length, tendon mass and bone lengths) and calculated muscle physiological cross sectional area (PCSA) and average tendon cross sectional area from emus across three ontogenetic stages (n = 17, body masses from 3.6 to 42 kg). The data were analysed by reduced major axis regression to determine how these biomechanically relevant aspects of morphology scaled with body mass. Muscle mass and PCSA showed a marked trend towards positive allometry (26 and 27 out of 34 muscles respectively) and fascicle length showed a more mixed scaling pattern. The long tendons of the main digital flexors scaled with positive allometry for all characteristics whilst other tendons demonstrated a less clear scaling pattern. Finally, the two longer bones of the limb (tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus) also exhibited positive allometry for length, and two others (femur and first phalanx of digit III) had trends towards isometry. These results indicate that emus experience a relative increase in their muscle force-generating capacities, as well as potentially increasing the force-sustaining capacities of their tendons, as they grow. Furthermore, we have clarified anatomical descriptions and provided illustrations of the pelvic limb muscle–tendon units in emus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luis P Lamas
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College , Hatfield , United Kingdom
| | - Russell P Main
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University , West Lafayette, IN , USA
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College , Hatfield , United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Hertel F, Maldonado JE, Sustaita D. Wing and hindlimb myology of vultures and raptors (Accipitriformes) in relation to locomotion and foraging. ACTA ZOOL-STOCKHOLM 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/azo.12074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fritz Hertel
- Department of Biology; California State University; 18111 Nordhoff Street Northridge CA 91330-8303 USA
| | - Jesús E. Maldonado
- Center for Conservation and Evolutionary Genetics; Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute; National Zoological Park; Washington DC USA
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology; National Museum of Natural History; Smithsonian Institution; PO Box 37012 MRC 5503 Washington DC 20013-7012 USA
| | - Diego Sustaita
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology; Brown University; Providence RI 02912-G USA
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Falk J, Wong JWY, Kölliker M, Meunier J. Sibling Cooperation in Earwig Families Provides Insights into the Early Evolution of Social Life. Am Nat 2014; 183:547-57. [DOI: 10.1086/675364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
|
40
|
Dial TR, Heers AM, Tobalske BW. Ontogeny of aerodynamics in mallards: comparative performance and developmental implications. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 215:3693-702. [PMID: 22855612 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.062018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Wing morphology correlates with flight performance and ecology among adult birds, yet the impact of wing development on aerodynamic capacity is not well understood. Recent work using chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar), a precocial flier, indicates that peak coefficients of lift and drag (C(L) and C(D)) and lift-to-drag ratio (C(L):C(D)) increase throughout ontogeny and that these patterns correspond with changes in feather microstructure. To begin to place these results in a comparative context that includes variation in life-history strategy, we used a propeller and force-plate model to study aerodynamic force production across a developmental series of the altricial-flying mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). We observed the same trend in mallards as reported for chukar in that coefficients of vertical (C(V)) and horizontal force (C(H)) and C(V):C(H) ratio increased with age, and that measures of gross-wing morphology (aspect ratio, camber and porosity) in mallards did not account for intraspecific trends in force production. Rather, feather microstructure (feather unfurling, rachis width, feather asymmetry and barbule overlap) all were positively correlated with peak C(V):C(H). Throughout ontogeny, mallard primary feathers became stiffer and less transmissive to air at both macroscale (between individual feathers) and microscale (between barbs/barbules/barbicels) levels. Differences between species were manifest primarily as heterochrony of aerodynamic force development. Chukar wings generated measurable aerodynamic forces early (<8 days), and improved gradually throughout a 100 day ontogenetic period. Mallard wings exhibited delayed aerodynamic force production until just prior to fledging (day 60), and showed dramatic improvement within a condensed 2-week period. These differences in timing may be related to mechanisms of escape used by juveniles, with mallards swimming to safety and chukar flap-running up slopes to take refuge. Future comparative work should test whether the need for early onset of aerodynamic force production in the chukar, compared with delayed, but rapid, change in the mallard wing, leads to a limited repertoire of flight behavior in adult chukar compared with mallards.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Terry R Dial
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84102, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|