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Kunc M, Dobeš P, Ward R, Lee S, Čegan R, Dostálková S, Holušová K, Hurychová J, Eliáš S, Pinďáková E, Čukanová E, Prodělalová J, Petřivalský M, Danihlík J, Havlík J, Hobza R, Kavanagh K, Hyršl P. Omics-based analysis of honey bee (Apis mellifera) response to Varroa sp. parasitisation and associated factors reveals changes impairing winter bee generation. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 152:103877. [PMID: 36403678 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2022.103877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The extensive annual loss of honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) represents a global problem affecting agriculture and biodiversity. The parasitic mite Varroa destructor, associated with viral co-infections, plays a key role in this loss. Despite years of intensive research, the complex mechanisms of Varroa - honey bee interaction are still not fully defined. Therefore, this study employed a unique combination of transcriptomic, proteomic, metabolomic, and functional analyses to reveal new details about the effect of Varroa mites and naturally associated factors, including viruses, on honey bees. We focused on the differences between Varroa parasitised and unparasitised ten-day-old worker bees collected before overwintering from the same set of colonies reared without anti-mite treatment. Supplementary comparison to honey bees collected from colonies with standard anti-Varroa treatment can provide further insights into the effect of a pyrethroid flumethrin. Analysis of the honey bees exposed to mite parasitisation revealed alterations in the transcriptome and proteome related to immunity, oxidative stress, olfactory recognition, metabolism of sphingolipids, and RNA regulatory mechanisms. The immune response and sphingolipid metabolism were strongly activated, whereas olfactory recognition and oxidative stress pathways were inhibited in Varroa parasitised honey bees compared to unparasitised ones. Moreover, metabolomic analysis confirmed the depletion of nutrients and energy stores, resulting in a generally disrupted metabolism in the parasitised workers. The combined omics-based analysis conducted on strictly parasitised bees revealed the key molecular components and mechanisms underlying the detrimental effects of Varroa sp. and its associated pathogens. This study provides the theoretical basis and interlinked datasets for further research on honey bee response to biological threats and the development of efficient control strategies against Varroa mites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Kunc
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Dobeš
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Rachel Ward
- Department of Biology, Maynooth University, W23 F2K8 Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland
| | - Saetbyeol Lee
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Radim Čegan
- Department of Plant Developmental Genetics, Institute of Biophysics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Královopolská 135, 612 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Silvie Dostálková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Holušová
- Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Šlechtitelů 31, 779 00, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Hurychová
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Sara Eliáš
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Eliška Pinďáková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Eliška Čukanová
- Department of Infectious Disease and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 296/70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Prodělalová
- Department of Infectious Disease and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 296/70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Marek Petřivalský
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Danihlík
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Havlík
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Roman Hobza
- Department of Plant Developmental Genetics, Institute of Biophysics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Královopolská 135, 612 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Kevin Kavanagh
- Department of Biology, Maynooth University, W23 F2K8 Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland
| | - Pavel Hyršl
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic
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Wang X, Lin Y, Liang L, Geng H, Zhang M, Nie H, Su S. Transcriptional Profiles of Diploid Mutant Apis mellifera Embryos after Knockout of csd by CRISPR/Cas9. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12080704. [PMID: 34442270 PMCID: PMC8396534 DOI: 10.3390/insects12080704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary In honey bees, males are haploid while females are diploid, leading to a fundamental difference in genetic materials between the sexes. In order to better control the comparison of gene expression between males and females, diploid mutant males were generated by knocking out the sex-determining gene, complementary sex determiner (csd), in fertilized embryos. The diploid mutant drones had male external morphological features, as well as male gonads. RNA sequencing was performed on the diploid mutant embryos and one-day-old larvae. The transcriptome analysis showed that several female-biased genes, such as worker-enriched antennal (Wat), vitellogenin (Vg), and some venom-related genes, were down-regulated in the diploid mutant males. In contrast, some male-biased genes, like takeout and apolipophorin-III-like protein (A4), were up-regulated. Moreover, the co-expression gene networks suggested that csd might interact very closely with fruitless (fru), feminizer (fem) might have connections with hexamerin 70c (hex70c), and transformer-2 (tra2) might play roles with troponin T (TpnT). Foundational information about the differences in the gene expression caused by sex differentiation was provided in this study. It is believed that this study will pave the ground for further research on the different mechanisms between males and females in honey bees. Abstract In honey bees, complementary sex determiner (csd) is the primary signal of sex determination. Its allelic composition is heterozygous in females, and hemizygous or homozygous in males. To explore the transcriptome differences after sex differentiation between males and females, with genetic differences excluded, csd in fertilized embryos was knocked out by CRISPR/Cas9. The diploid mutant males at 24 h, 48 h, 72 h, and 96 h after egg laying (AEL) and the mock-treated females derived from the same fertilized queen were investigated through RNA-seq. Mutations were detected in the target sequence in diploid mutants. The diploid mutant drones had typical male morphological characteristics and gonads. Transcriptome analysis showed that several female-biased genes, such as worker-enriched antennal (Wat), vitellogenin (Vg), and some venom-related genes, were down-regulated in the diploid mutant males. In contrast, some male-biased genes, such as takeout and apolipophorin-III-like protein (A4), had higher expressions in the diploid mutant males. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) indicated that there might be interactions between csd and fruitless (fru), feminizer (fem) and hexamerin 70c (hex70c), transformer-2 (tra2) and troponin T (TpnT). The information provided by this study will benefit further research on the sex dimorphism and development of honey bees and other insects in Hymenoptera.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuxiu Wang
- College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China;
- College of Animal Sciences (College of Bee Science), Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China; (Y.L.); (L.L.); (H.G.); (M.Z.)
| | - Yan Lin
- College of Animal Sciences (College of Bee Science), Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China; (Y.L.); (L.L.); (H.G.); (M.Z.)
| | - Liqiang Liang
- College of Animal Sciences (College of Bee Science), Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China; (Y.L.); (L.L.); (H.G.); (M.Z.)
| | - Haiyang Geng
- College of Animal Sciences (College of Bee Science), Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China; (Y.L.); (L.L.); (H.G.); (M.Z.)
| | - Meng Zhang
- College of Animal Sciences (College of Bee Science), Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China; (Y.L.); (L.L.); (H.G.); (M.Z.)
- Apicultural Research Institute of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang 330052, China
| | - Hongyi Nie
- College of Animal Sciences (College of Bee Science), Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China; (Y.L.); (L.L.); (H.G.); (M.Z.)
- Correspondence: (H.N.); (S.S.); Tel.: +86-157-0590-2721 (H.N.); +86-181-0503-9938 (S.S.)
| | - Songkun Su
- College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China;
- College of Animal Sciences (College of Bee Science), Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China; (Y.L.); (L.L.); (H.G.); (M.Z.)
- Correspondence: (H.N.); (S.S.); Tel.: +86-157-0590-2721 (H.N.); +86-181-0503-9938 (S.S.)
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Mining the Royal Jelly Proteins: Combinatorial Hexapeptide Ligand Library Significantly Improves the MS-Based Proteomic Identification in Complex Biological Samples. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 26:molecules26092762. [PMID: 34067143 PMCID: PMC8125745 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Royal jelly (RJ) is a complex, creamy secretion produced by the glands of worker bees. Due to its health-promoting properties, it is used by humans as a dietary supplement. However, RJ compounds are not fully characterized yet. Hence, in this research, we aimed to broaden the knowledge of the proteomic composition of fresh RJ. Water extracts of the samples were pre-treated using combinatorial hexapeptide ligand libraries (ProteoMinerTM kit), trypsin-digested, and analyzed by a nanoLC-MALDI-TOF/TOF MS system. To check the ProteoMinerTM performance in the MS-based protein identification, we also examined RJ extracts that were not prepared with the ProteoMinerTM kit. We identified a total of 86 proteins taxonomically classified to Apis spp. (bees). Among them, 74 proteins were detected in RJ extracts pre-treated with ProteoMinerTM kit, and only 50 proteins were found in extracts non-enriched with this technique. Ten of the identified features were hypothetical proteins whose existence has been predicted, but any experimental evidence proves their in vivo expression. Additionally, we detected four uncharacterized proteins of unknown functions. The results of this research indicate that the ProteoMinerTM strategy improves proteomic identification in complex biological samples. Broadening the knowledge of RJ composition may contribute to the development of standards and regulations, enhancing the quality of RJ, and consequently, the safety of its supplementation.
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The effect of the drug "Cobazin" on the productive indicators of bee colonies. EUREKA: HEALTH SCIENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.21303/2504-5679.2021.001711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the study was to determine the effectiveness of the drug "Cobazin" on the productivity of bee colonies during the increase in strength (increase in the number of young bees in the bee colony) in spring and autumn.
Materials and methods. Control and experimental groups were formed to test "Cobazin" feed supplement. It was fed 5 times with an interval of 5 days. Bee colonies from the control group received a pure sugar solution (1:1) in the amount of 0.5 liters per bee colony, and the experimental group received a sugar solution of 0.5 liters per bee colony (1:1) with the addition of the drug "Cobazin" in the amount of 2.5 g.
Indicators characterizing the development of bee colonies were determined by a measuring frame of 5x5 cm in size, for 12 days to cover the total number of eggs laid by the queen bee during feeding. Four measurements were performed during the study. The results of the control and experimental groups were compared and the significance of the differences between them was established. There was a comparison of the difference between groups of bees both fed pure sugar syrup in a ratio of 1:1 and syrup with the addition of the drug "Cobazin".
Results. It is proved that during the feeding period the number of brood in bee colonies that received feed supplement "Cobazin" increased significantly by 76 % (71 % in the group that received only sugar solution without this drug). Live weight of queen bees in colonies that were stimulated with "Cobazin" was actually 2 % higher compared to the control group.
It was found that at the end of the bee season, bee colonies fed in May with the feed supplement "Cobazin" had significantly higher values of strength, number of sealed brood and live queen bees compared to those who received pure sugar solution. The brood in the control group was 25 % lower than in the experimental group.
Conclusions. For the first time it was proved that the use of feed supplement "Cobazin" in combination with sugar solution has a positive effect on the features that characterize the development of bee colonies (strength, number of sealed brood) and their health productivity. The positive impact is observed not only during feeding, but also in subsequent periods of colony development.
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Dostálková S, Dobeš P, Kunc M, Hurychová J, Škrabišová M, Petřivalský M, Titěra D, Havlík J, Hyršl P, Danihlík J. Winter honeybee ( Apis mellifera) populations show greater potential to induce immune responses than summer populations after immune stimuli. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:jeb232595. [PMID: 33288532 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.232595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
In the temperate climates of central Europe and North America, two distinct honeybee (Apis mellifera) populations are found in colonies: short-living summer bees emerge in spring and survive until summer, whereas long-living winter bees emerge in late August and overwinter. Besides the difference in their life spans, each of these populations fulfils a different role in the colonies and individual bees have distinct physiological and immunological adaptations depending on their roles. For instance, winter worker bees have higher vitellogenin levels and larger reserves of nutrients in the fat body than summer bees. The differences between the immune systems of both populations are well described at the constitutive level; however, our knowledge of its inducibility is still very limited. In this study, we focus on the response of 10-day-old honeybee workers to immune challenges triggered in vivo by injecting heat-killed bacteria, with particular focus on honeybees that emerge and live under hive conditions. Responses to bacterial injections differed between summer and winter bees. Winter bees exhibited a more intense response, including higher expression of antimicrobial genes and antimicrobial activity, as well as a significant decrease in vitellogenin gene expression and its concentration in the hemolymph. The intense immune response observed in winter honeybees may contribute to our understanding of the relationships between colony fitness and infection with pathogens, as well as its association with successful overwintering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvie Dostálková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc 783 71, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Dobeš
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, Brno 625 00, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Kunc
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, Brno 625 00, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Hurychová
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, Brno 625 00, Czech Republic
| | - Mária Škrabišová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc 783 71, Czech Republic
| | - Marek Petřivalský
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc 783 71, Czech Republic
| | - Dalibor Titěra
- Bee Research Institute, Libčice nad Vltavou 252 66, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Havlík
- Department of Food Quality and Safety, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamycka 129, Prague 252 63, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Hyršl
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, Brno 625 00, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Danihlík
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc 783 71, Czech Republic
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The Year of the Honey Bee ( Apis mellifera L.) with Respect to Its Physiology and Immunity: A Search for Biochemical Markers of Longevity. INSECTS 2019; 10:insects10080244. [PMID: 31394797 PMCID: PMC6723739 DOI: 10.3390/insects10080244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Revised: 07/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
It has been known for many years that in temperate climates the European honey bee, Apis mellifera, exists in the form of two distinct populations within the year, short-living summer bees and long-living winter bees. However, there is only limited knowledge about the basic biochemical markers of winter and summer populations as yet. Nevertheless, the distinction between these two kinds of bees is becoming increasingly important as it can help beekeepers to estimate proportion of long-living bees in hives and therefore in part predict success of overwintering. To identify markers of winter generations, we employed the continuous long-term monitoring of a single honey bee colony for almost two years, which included measurements of physiological and immunological parameters. The results showed that the total concentration of proteins, the level of vitellogenin, and the antibacterial activity of haemolymph are the best three of all followed parameters that are related to honey bee longevity and can therefore be used as its markers.
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The Dynamics of Deformed Wing Virus Concentration and Host Defensive Gene Expression after Varroa Mite Parasitism in Honey Bees, Apis mellifera. INSECTS 2019; 10:insects10010016. [PMID: 30626033 PMCID: PMC6358901 DOI: 10.3390/insects10010016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Revised: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The synergistic interactions between the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor and Deformed wing virus (DWV) lead to the reduction in lifespan of the European honey bee Apis mellifera and often have been implicated in colony losses worldwide. However, to date, the underlying processes and mechanisms that form the multipartite interaction between the bee, mite, and virus have not been fully explained. To gain a better understanding of honey bees’ defense response to Varroa mite infestation and DWV infection, the DWV titers and transcription profiles of genes originating from RNAi, immunity, wound response, and homeostatic signaling pathways were monitored over a period of eight days. With respect to DWV, we observed low viral titers at early timepoints that coincided with high levels of Toll pathway transcription factor Dorsal, and its downstream immune effector molecules Hymenoptaecin, Apidaecin, Abaecin, and Defensin 1. However, we observed a striking increase in viral titers beginning after two days that coincided with a decrease in Dorsal levels and its corresponding immune effector molecules, and the small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) ligase repressor of Dorsal, PIAS3. We observed a similar expression pattern for genes expressing transcripts for the RNA interference (Dicer/Argonaute), wound/homeostatic (Janus Kinase), and tissue growth (Map kinase/Wnt) pathways. Our results demonstrate that on a whole, honey bees are able to mount an immediate, albeit, temporally limited, immune and homeostatic response to Varroa and DWV infections, after which downregulation of these pathways leaves the bee vulnerable to expansive viral replication. The critical insights into the defense response upon Varroa and DWV challenges generated in this study may serve as a solid base for future research on the development of effective and efficient disease management strategies in honey bees.
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Li G, Zhao H, Liu Z, Wang H, Xu B, Guo X. The Wisdom of Honeybee Defenses Against Environmental Stresses. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:722. [PMID: 29765357 PMCID: PMC5938604 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
As one of the predominant pollinator, honeybees provide important ecosystem service to crops and wild plants, and generate great economic benefit for humans. Unfortunately, there is clear evidence of recent catastrophic honeybee colony failure in some areas, resulting in markedly negative environmental and economic effects. It has been demonstrated that various environmental stresses, including both abiotic and biotic stresses, functioning singly or synergistically, are the potential drivers of colony collapse. Honeybees can use many defense mechanisms to decrease the damage from environmental stress to some extent. Here, we synthesize and summarize recent advances regarding the effects of environmental stress on honeybees and the wisdom of honeybees to respond to external environmental stress. Furthermore, we provide possible future research directions about the response of honeybees to various form of stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Hang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Zhenguo Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Hongfang Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Baohua Xu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Xingqi Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
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Zaobidna EA, Żółtowska K, Łopieńska-Biernat E. Varroa destructor induces changes in the expression of immunity-related genes during the development of Apis mellifera worker and drone broods. Acta Parasitol 2017; 62:779-789. [PMID: 29035869 DOI: 10.1515/ap-2017-0094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor has emerged as the major pest of honeybees. Despite extensive research efforts, the pathogenesis of varroosis has not been fully explained. Earlier studies suggested that V. destructor infestation leads to the suppression of the host's immune system. The aim of this study was to analyze the immune responses of 14 genes in the Toll signal transduction pathways, including effector genes of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), in developing Apis mellifera workers and drones infested with V. destructor. Four developmental stages (L5 larvae, prepupae, and 2 pupal stages) and newly emerged imagines were analyzed. In workers, the most significant changes were observed in L5 larvae in the initial stages of infestation. A significant increase in the relative expression of 10 of the 14 analyzed genes, including defensin-1 and defensin-2, was observed in infested bees relative to non-infested individuals. The immune response in drones developed at a slower rate. The expression of genes regulating cytoplasmic signal transduction increased in prepupae, whereas the expression of defensin-1 and defensin-2 effector genes increased in P3 pupae with red eyes. The expression of many immunity-related genes was silenced in successive life stages and in imagines, and it was more profound in workers than in drones. The results indicate that V. destructor significantly influences immune responses regulated by the Toll signal transduction pathway in bees. In infested bees, the observed changes in Toll pathway genes varied between life stages and the sexes.
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Ararso Z, Ma C, Qi Y, Feng M, Han B, Hu H, Meng L, Li J. Proteome Comparisons between Hemolymph of Two Honeybee Strains (Apis mellifera ligustica) Reveal Divergent Molecular Basis in Driving Hemolymph Function and High Royal Jelly Secretion. J Proteome Res 2017; 17:402-419. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.7b00621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zewdu Ararso
- Institute of Apicultural
Research/Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of
Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Chuan Ma
- Institute of Apicultural
Research/Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of
Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yuping Qi
- Institute of Apicultural
Research/Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of
Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Mao Feng
- Institute of Apicultural
Research/Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of
Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Bin Han
- Institute of Apicultural
Research/Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of
Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Han Hu
- Institute of Apicultural
Research/Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of
Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Lifeng Meng
- Institute of Apicultural
Research/Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of
Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Jianke Li
- Institute of Apicultural
Research/Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of
Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
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Hystad EM, Salmela H, Amdam GV, Münch D. Hemocyte-mediated phagocytosis differs between honey bee (Apis mellifera) worker castes. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0184108. [PMID: 28877227 PMCID: PMC5587260 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0184108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Honey bees as other insects rely on the innate immune system for protection against diseases. The innate immune system includes the circulating hemocytes (immune cells) that clear pathogens from hemolymph (blood) by phagocytosis, nodulation or encapsulation. Honey bee hemocyte numbers have been linked to hemolymph levels of vitellogenin. Vitellogenin is a multifunctional protein with immune-supportive functions identified in a range of species, including the honey bee. Hemocyte numbers can increase via mitosis, and this recruitment process can be important for immune system function and maintenance. Here, we tested if hemocyte mediated phagocytosis differs among the physiologically different honey bee worker castes (nurses, foragers and winter bees), and study possible interactions with vitellogenin and hemocyte recruitment. To this end, we adapted phagocytosis assays, which—together with confocal microscopy and flow cytometry—allow qualitative and quantitative assessment of hemocyte performance. We found that nurses are more efficient in phagocytic uptake than both foragers and winter bees. We detected vitellogenin within the hemocytes, and found that winter bees have the highest numbers of vitellogenin-positive hemocytes. Connections between phagocytosis, hemocyte-vitellogenin and mitosis were worker caste dependent. Our results demonstrate that the phagocytic performance of immune cells differs significantly between honey bee worker castes, and support increased immune competence in nurses as compared to forager bees. Our data, moreover, provides support for roles of vitellogenin in hemocyte activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Marit Hystad
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Aas, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | - Heli Salmela
- Department of Biosciences, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Gro Vang Amdam
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Aas, Norway
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Daniel Münch
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Aas, Norway
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12
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Strachecka A, Chobotow J, Paleolog J, Łoś A, Schulz M, Teper D, Kucharczyk H, Grzybek M. Insights into the biochemical defence and methylation of the solitary bee Osmia rufa L: A foundation for examining eusociality development. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0176539. [PMID: 28448564 PMCID: PMC5407852 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0176539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
We examined age-related biochemical and histological changes in the fat bodies and hemolymph of Osmia rufa males and females. We analysed solitary bees during diapause, in October and in April; as well as the flying insects following diapause, in May and June. The trophocyte sizes, as well as the numbers of lipid droplets were the greatest at the beginning of diapause. Subsequently, they decreased along with age. Triglyceride and glucose concentrations systematically decreased in fat body cells but increased in the hemolymph from October to June. Concentrations/activities of (enzymatic and non-enzymatic) antioxidant and proteolytic systems, as well as phenoloxidase, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase levels were constant during the diapause, usually lower in the males than the females. Prior to the diapause/overwintering, the concentrations/activities of all the compounds were higher in the fat bodies than in the hemolymph. Later in the spring and in the summer, they increased in the hemolymph and on the body surfaces, while decreasing in the fat bodies. The global DNA methylation levels increased with age. Higher levels were always observed in the males than in the females. The study will promote better understanding of bee evolution and will be useful for the protection and management of solitary bees, with benefits to the environment and agriculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aneta Strachecka
- Department of Biological Basis of Animal Production, Faculty of Biology, Animal Sciences and Bioeconomy, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 13, Lublin, Poland
| | - Jacek Chobotow
- Zoological Museum/Laboratory, Institute of Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Akademicka 19, Lublin, Poland
| | - Jerzy Paleolog
- Department of Zoology, Animal Ecology & Wildlife Management, Faculty of Biology, Animal Sciences and Bioeconomy, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 13, Lublin, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Łoś
- Department of Biological Basis of Animal Production, Faculty of Biology, Animal Sciences and Bioeconomy, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 13, Lublin, Poland
| | - Michał Schulz
- Department of Biological Basis of Animal Production, Faculty of Biology, Animal Sciences and Bioeconomy, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 13, Lublin, Poland
| | - Dariusz Teper
- Research Institute of Horticulture, Apicultural Division in Pulawy, Kazimierska 2, Pulawy, Poland
| | - Halina Kucharczyk
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Akademicka 19, Lublin, Poland
| | - Maciej Grzybek
- Department of Parasitology and Invasive Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 12, Lublin, Poland
- Department of Molecular Biology, Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Polish Academy of Science in Jastrzebiec, Postepu 36A, Magdalenka, Poland
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13
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Sepsis and Hemocyte Loss in Honey Bees (Apis mellifera) Infected with Serratia marcescens Strain Sicaria. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0167752. [PMID: 28002470 PMCID: PMC5176276 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Global loss of honey bee colonies is threatening the human food supply. Diverse pathogens reduce honey bee hardiness needed to sustain colonies, especially in winter. We isolated a free-living Gram negative bacillus from hemolymph of worker honey bees (Apis mellifera) found separated from winter clusters. In some hives, greater than 90% of the dying bees detached from the winter cluster were found to contain this bacterium in their hemolymph. Throughout the year, the same organism was rarely found in bees engaged in normal hive activities, but was detected in about half of Varroa destructor mites obtained from colonies that housed the septic bees. Flow cytometry of hemolymph from septic bees showed a significant reduction of plasmatocytes and other types of hemocytes. Interpretation of the16S rRNA sequence of the bacterium indicated that it belongs to the Serratia genus of Gram-negative Gammaproteobacteria, which has not previously been implicated as a pathogen of adult honey bees. Complete genome sequence analysis of the bacterium supported its classification as a novel strain of Serratia marcescens, which was designated as S. marcescens strain sicaria (Ss1). When compared with other strains of S. marcescens, Ss1 demonstrated several phenotypic and genetic differences, including 65 genes not previously found in other Serratia genomes. Some of the unique genes we identified in Ss1 were related to those from bacterial insect pathogens and commensals. Recovery of this organism extends a complex pathosphere of agents which may contribute to failure of honey bee colonies.
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14
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Straub L, Villamar-Bouza L, Bruckner S, Chantawannakul P, Gauthier L, Khongphinitbunjong K, Retschnig G, Troxler A, Vidondo B, Neumann P, Williams GR. Neonicotinoid insecticides can serve as inadvertent insect contraceptives. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 283:20160506. [PMID: 27466446 PMCID: PMC4971197 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.0506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
There is clear evidence for sublethal effects of neonicotinoid insecticides on non-target ecosystem service-providing insects. However, their possible impact on male insect reproduction is currently unknown, despite the key role of sex. Here, we show that two neonicotinoids (4.5 ppb thiamethoxam and 1.5 ppb clothianidin) significantly reduce the reproductive capacity of male honeybees (drones), Apis mellifera Drones were obtained from colonies exposed to the neonicotinoid insecticides or controls, and subsequently maintained in laboratory cages until they reached sexual maturity. While no significant effects were observed for male teneral (newly emerged adult) body mass and sperm quantity, the data clearly showed reduced drone lifespan, as well as reduced sperm viability (percentage living versus dead) and living sperm quantity by 39%. Our results demonstrate for the first time that neonicotinoid insecticides can negatively affect male insect reproductive capacity, and provide a possible mechanistic explanation for managed honeybee queen failure and wild insect pollinator decline. The widespread prophylactic use of neonicotinoids may have previously overlooked inadvertent contraceptive effects on non-target insects, thereby limiting conservation efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Straub
- Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Laura Villamar-Bouza
- Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland Environmental Science Department, University of Koblenz-Landau, Landau, Germany
| | - Selina Bruckner
- Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Panuwan Chantawannakul
- Bee Protection Laboratory (BeeP), Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | | | - Kitiphong Khongphinitbunjong
- Bee Protection Laboratory (BeeP), Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand School of Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand
| | - Gina Retschnig
- Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Aline Troxler
- Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Beatriz Vidondo
- Veterinary Public Health Institute, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Peter Neumann
- Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland Bee Protection Laboratory (BeeP), Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand Agroscope, Swiss Bee Research Centre, Bern, Switzerland Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Geoffrey R Williams
- Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland Bee Protection Laboratory (BeeP), Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand Agroscope, Swiss Bee Research Centre, Bern, Switzerland
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15
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Liu G, Ma H, Xie H, Xuan N, Guo X, Fan Z, Rajashekar B, Arnaud P, Offmann B, Picimbon JF. Biotype Characterization, Developmental Profiling, Insecticide Response and Binding Property of Bemisia tabaci Chemosensory Proteins: Role of CSP in Insect Defense. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0154706. [PMID: 27167733 PMCID: PMC4864240 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0154706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2014] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemosensory proteins (CSPs) are believed to play a key role in the chemosensory process in insects. Sequencing genomic DNA and RNA encoding CSP1, CSP2 and CSP3 in the sweet potato whitefly Bemisia tabaci showed strong variation between B and Q biotypes. Analyzing CSP-RNA levels showed not only biotype, but also age and developmental stage-specific expression. Interestingly, applying neonicotinoid thiamethoxam insecticide using twenty-five different dose/time treatments in B and Q young adults showed that Bemisia CSP1, CSP2 and CSP3 were also differentially regulated over insecticide exposure. In our study one of the adult-specific gene (CSP1) was shown to be significantly up-regulated by the insecticide in Q, the most highly resistant form of B. tabaci. Correlatively, competitive binding assays using tryptophan fluorescence spectroscopy and molecular docking demonstrated that CSP1 protein preferentially bound to linoleic acid, while CSP2 and CSP3 proteins rather associated to another completely different type of chemical, i.e. α-pentyl-cinnamaldehyde (jasminaldehyde). This might indicate that some CSPs in whiteflies are crucial to facilitate the transport of fatty acids thus regulating some metabolic pathways of the insect immune response, while some others are tuned to much more volatile chemicals known not only for their pleasant odor scent, but also for their potent toxic insecticide activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoxia Liu
- Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology Research Center, Jinan, China
| | - Hongmei Ma
- Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology Research Center, Jinan, China
| | - Hongyan Xie
- Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology Research Center, Jinan, China
| | - Ning Xuan
- Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology Research Center, Jinan, China
| | - Xia Guo
- Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology Research Center, Jinan, China
| | - Zhongxue Fan
- Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology Research Center, Jinan, China
| | - Balaji Rajashekar
- University of Tartu, Institute of Computer Science, 2 Liivi, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Philippe Arnaud
- University of Nantes, Protein Engineering and Functionality Unit, UMR CNRS 6286, 2 La Houssinière, Nantes, France
| | - Bernard Offmann
- University of Nantes, Protein Engineering and Functionality Unit, UMR CNRS 6286, 2 La Houssinière, Nantes, France
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16
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Hyphenated LC-MALDI-ToF/ToF and LC-ESI-QToF approach in proteomic characterization of honeybee venom. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2016; 121:69-76. [PMID: 26780156 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2016.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2015] [Revised: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 01/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
To increase in the depth characterization of venom proteome of Apis mellifera the hyphenated LC-MALDI-ToF/ToF-MS (liquid chromatography-matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight/time of flight tandem mass spectrometry) and LC-ESI-QToF-MS (liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-quadrupole time of flight tandem mass spectrometry) techniques combined with combinatorial peptide ligand library enrichment method is proposed in this study. The novel approach simplifies pretreatment protocol in venom investigation. By using the protein preparation kit with sequential multi-step elution, the honeybee venom was dispensed into four different fractions. In total 269 proteins were detected, among these 49 honeybee toxins, allergens and components involved in mechanism of envenoming belonging to venom enzyme classes of esterases, proteases/peptidases, protease inhibitors, hydrolases and major royal jelly proteins. Moreover 5 additional putative toxins were identified. Their role in envenoming process was discussed. We concluded that different mass spectrometry techniques increased the detection of the honeybee venom proteins, underscoring the complementary character of analytical methods. The combination of MALDI and ESI ionization has resulted in numerous proteins identifications, not possible to reach with single proteomic technique. The study will contribute to broadening the knowledge about the complexity of honeybee venom. The newly identified proteins may serve not only as toxins and allergens, but also as substances with potential pharmacological activity. Although, the most detected proteins belong to trace elements of honeybee venom without toxic activity or action on vital system of victims, they should be taken into account in characterization of living organism response on Apis mellifera sting.
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17
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Collison E, Hird H, Cresswell J, Tyler C. Interactive effects of pesticide exposure and pathogen infection on bee health - a critical analysis. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2015; 91:1006-1019. [PMID: 26150129 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Revised: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Bees are fundamentally important for pollination services and declines in populations could have significant economic and environmental implications. Pesticide exposure and pathogen infection are recognised as potential stressors impacting upon bee populations and recently there has been a surge in research on pesticide-disease interactions to reflect environmentally realistic scenarios better. We critically analyse the findings on pesticide-disease interactions, including effects on the survival, pathogen loads and immunity of bees, and assess the suitability of various endpoints to inform our mechanistic understanding of these interactions. We show that pesticide exposure and pathogen infection have not yet been found to interact to affect worker survival under field-realistic scenarios. Colony-level implications of pesticide effects on Nosema infections, viral loads and honey bee immunity remain unclear as these effects have been observed in a laboratory setting only using a small range of pesticide exposures, generally exceeding those likely to occur in the natural environment, and assessing a highly selected series of immune-related endpoints. Future research priorities include the need for a better understanding of pesticide effects on the antimicrobial peptide (AMP) component of an individual's immune response and on social defence behaviours. Interactions between pesticide exposure and bacterial and fungal infections have yet to be addressed. The paucity of studies in non-Apis bee species is a further major knowledge gap.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Collison
- Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Geoffrey Pope, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, U.K.. .,Fera Science Ltd. (Fera), Sand Hutton, York, YO41 1LZ, U.K..
| | - Heather Hird
- Fera Science Ltd. (Fera), Sand Hutton, York, YO41 1LZ, U.K
| | - James Cresswell
- Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Geoffrey Pope, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, U.K
| | - Charles Tyler
- Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Geoffrey Pope, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, U.K
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18
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Piñera AV, Charles HM, Dinh TA, Killian KA. Maturation of the immune system of the male house cricket, Acheta domesticus. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 59:752-760. [PMID: 23727197 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2013.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2012] [Revised: 05/21/2013] [Accepted: 05/22/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The immune system functions to counteract the wide range of pathogens an insect may encounter during its lifespan, ultimately maintaining fitness and increasing the likelihood of survival to reproductive maturity. In this study, we describe the maturation of the innate immune system of the male house cricket Acheta domesticus during the last two nymphal stages, and during early and late adulthood. Total hemolymph phenoloxidase enzyme activity, lysozyme-like enzyme activity, the number of circulating hemocytes, and encapsulation ability were all determined for each developmental stage or age examined. The number of circulating hemocytes and lysozyme-like enzyme activity were similar for all developmental stages examined. Nymphs and newly molted adult males, however, had significantly lower total phenoloxidase activity than later adult stages, yet nymphs were able to encapsulate a nylon thread just as well as adults. Encapsulation ability would thus appear to be independent of total phenoloxidase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelica V Piñera
- Department of Zoology and Center for Neuroscience, 212 Pearson Hall, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA
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19
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Gätschenberger H, Azzami K, Tautz J, Beier H. Antibacterial immune competence of honey bees (Apis mellifera) is adapted to different life stages and environmental risks. PLoS One 2013; 8:e66415. [PMID: 23799099 PMCID: PMC3684586 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0066415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2013] [Accepted: 05/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of all honey bee castes proceeds through three different life stages all of which encounter microbial infections to a various extent. We have examined the immune strength of honey bees across all developmental stages with emphasis on the temporal expression of cellular and humoral immune responses upon artificial challenge with viable Escherichia coli bacteria. We employed a broad array of methods to investigate defence strategies of infected individuals: (a) fate of bacteria in the haemocoel; (b) nodule formation and (c) induction of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). Newly emerged adult worker bees and drones were able to activate efficiently all examined immune reactions. The number of viable bacteria circulating in the haemocoel of infected bees declined rapidly by more than two orders of magnitude within the first 4–6 h post-injection (p.i.), coinciding with the occurrence of melanised nodules. Antimicrobial activity, on the other hand, became detectable only after the initial bacterial clearance. These two temporal patterns of defence reactions very likely represent the constitutive cellular and the induced humoral immune response. A unique feature of honey bees is that a fraction of worker bees survives the winter season in a cluster mostly engaged in thermoregulation. We show here that the overall immune strength of winter bees matches that of young summer bees although nodulation reactions are not initiated at all. As expected, high doses of injected viable E.coli bacteria caused no mortality in larvae or adults of each age. However, drone and worker pupae succumbed to challenge with E.coli even at low doses, accompanied by a premature darkening of the pupal body. In contrast to larvae and adults, we observed no fast clearance of viable bacteria and no induction of AMPs but a rapid proliferation of E.coli bacteria in the haemocoel of bee pupae ultimately leading to their death.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Klara Azzami
- BEEgroup, Biocentre, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jürgen Tautz
- BEEgroup, Biocentre, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Hildburg Beier
- BEEgroup, Biocentre, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- * E-mail:
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