"Bet hedging" against climate change in developing and adult animals: roles for stochastic gene expression, phenotypic plasticity, epigenetic inheritance and adaptation

Animals from embryos to adults experiencing stress from climate change have numerous mechanisms available for enhancing their long-term survival. In this review we consider these options, and how viable they are in a world increasingly experiencing extreme weather associated with climate change. A deeply understood mechanism involves natural selection, leading to evolution of new adaptations that help cope with extreme and stochastic weather events associated with climate change. While potentially effective at staving off environmental challenges, such adaptations typically occur very slowly and incrementally over evolutionary time. Consequently, adaptation through natural selection is in most instances regarded as too slow to aid survival in rapidly changing environments, especially when considering the stochastic nature of extreme weather events associated with climate change. Alternative mechanisms operating in a much shorter time frame than adaptation involve the rapid creation of alternate phenotypes within a life cycle or a few generations. Stochastic gene expression creates multiple phenotypes from the same genotype even in the absence of environmental cues. In contrast, other mechanisms for phenotype change that are externally driven by environmental clues include well-understood developmental phenotypic plasticity (variation, flexibility), which can enable rapid, within-generation changes. Increasingly appreciated are epigenetic influences during development leading to rapid phenotypic changes that can also immediately be very widespread throughout a population, rather than confined to a few individuals as in the case of favorable gene mutations. Such epigenetically-induced phenotypic plasticity can arise rapidly in response to stressors within a generation or across a few generations and just as rapidly be "sunsetted" when the stressor dissipates, providing some capability to withstand environmental stressors emerging from climate change. Importantly, survival mechanisms resulting from adaptations and developmental phenotypic plasticity are not necessarily mutually exclusive, allowing for classic "bet hedging". Thus, the appearance of multiple phenotypes within a single population provides for a phenotype potentially optimal for some future environment. This enhances survival during stochastic extreme weather events associated with climate change. Finally, we end with recommendations for future physiological experiments, recommending in particular that experiments investigating phenotypic flexibility adopt more realistic protocols that reflect the stochastic nature of weather.

Elevated Water CO2 Can Prevent Dietary-Induced Osteomalacia in Post-Smolt Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar, L.)

Expansion of land-based systems in fish farms elevate the content of metabolic carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the water. High CO₂ is suggested to increase the bone mineral content in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar, L.). Conversely, low dietary phosphorus (P) halts bone mineralization. This study examines if high CO₂ can counteract reduced bone mineralization imposed by low dietary P intake. Atlantic salmon post-seawater transfer (initial weight 207.03 g) were fed diets containing 6.3 g/kg (0.5P), 9.0 g/kg (1P), or 26.8 g/kg (3P) total P for 13 weeks. Atlantic salmon from all dietary P groups were reared in seawater which was not injected with CO₂ and contained a regular CO₂ level (5 mg/L) or in seawater with injected CO₂ thus raising the level to 20 mg/L. Atlantic salmon were analyzed for blood chemistry, bone mineral content, vertebral centra deformities, mechanical properties, bone matrix alterations, expression of bone mineralization, and P metabolism-related genes. High CO₂ and high P reduced Atlantic salmon growth and feed intake. High CO₂ increased bone mineralization when dietary P was low. Atlantic salmon fed with a low P diet downregulated the fgf23 expression in bone cells indicating an increased renal phosphate reabsorption. The current results suggest that reduced dietary P could be sufficient to maintain bone mineralization under conditions of elevated CO₂. This opens up a possibility for lowering the dietary P content under certain farming conditions.

Effects of elevated CO2 on metabolic rate and nitrogenous waste handling in the early life stages of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares)

Ocean acidification is predicted to have a wide range of impacts on fish, but there has been little focus on broad-ranging pelagic fish species. Early life stages of fish are thought to be particularly susceptible to CO₂ exposure, since acid-base regulatory faculties may not be fully developed. We obtained yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) from a captive spawning broodstock population and exposed them to control or 1900 μatm CO₂ through the first three days of development as embryos transitioned into yolk sac larvae. Metabolic rate, yolk sac depletion, and oil globule depletion were measured to assess overall energy usage. To determine if CO₂ altered protein catabolism, tissue nitrogen content and nitrogenous waste excretion were quantified. CO₂ exposure did not significantly impact embryonic metabolic rate, yolk sac depletion, or oil globule depletion, however, there was a significant decrease in metabolic rate at the latest measured yolk sac larval stage (36 h post fertilization). CO₂-exposure led to a significant increase in nitrogenous waste excretion in larvae, but there were no differences in nitrogen tissue accumulation. Nitrogenous waste accumulated in embryos as they developed but decreased after hatch, coinciding with a large increase in nitrogenous waste excretion and increased metabolic rate in newly hatched larvae. Our results provide insight into how yellowfin tuna are impacted by increases in CO₂ in early development_, but more research with higher levels of replication is needed to better understand long-term impacts and acid-base regulatory mechanisms in this important pelagic fish.

Lack of detrimental effects of ocean acidification and warming on proximate composition, fitness and energy budget of juvenile Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis)

Rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) are driving ocean warming and acidification, which may negatively affect the nutritional quality and physiological performance of commercially important fish species. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of ocean acidification (OA; ΔpH = -0.3 units equivalent to ΔpCO₂ ~ +600 μatm) and warming (OW; ΔT = +4 °C) (and combined, OAW) on the proximate composition, fitness and energy budget of juvenile Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis). After an exposure period of 75 days, growth (G), metabolism (R) and excretion (faecal, F and nitrogenous losses, U) were assessed to calculate the energy intake (C). Biometric and viscera weight data were also registered to determine animal fitness. Overall, the proximate composition and gross energy were not significantly affected by acidification and warming (alone or in combination). Weight gain, maximum and standard metabolic rates (MMR and SMR, respectively), aerobic scope (AS) and C were significantly higher in fish subjected to OA, OW and OAW than in CTR conditions. Furthermore, the highest relative growth rates (RGR), specific growth rates in terms of wet weight (SGRw) and protein (SGRp), as well as feed efficiencies (FE) occurred in fish submitted to OW and OAW. On the other hand, fish exposed to CTR conditions had significantly higher feed conversion ratio (FCR) and ammonia excretion rate (AER) than those exposed to simulated stressors. Regarding energy distribution, the highest fraction was generally allocated to growth (48-63 %), followed by excretion through faeces (36-51 %), respiration (approximately 1 %) and ammonia excretion (0.1-0.2 %) in all treatments. Therefore, ocean warming and acidification can trigger physiological responses in juvenile Senegalese sole, particularly in their energy budget, which can affect the energy flow and allocation of its population. However, and in general, this species seems highly resilient to these predicted ocean climate change stressors.

Access to Cleaning Services Alters Fish Physiology Under Parasite Infection and Ocean Acidification

Cleaning symbioses are key mutualistic interactions where cleaners remove ectoparasites and tissues from client fishes. Such interactions elicit beneficial effects on clients’ ecophysiology, with cascading effects on fish diversity and abundance. Ocean acidification (OA), resulting from increasing CO₂ concentrations, can affect the behavior of cleaner fishes making them less motivated to inspect their clients. This is especially important as gnathiid fish ectoparasites are tolerant to ocean acidification. Here, we investigated how access to cleaning services, performed by the cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiatus, affect individual client’s (damselfish, Pomacentrus amboinensis) aerobic metabolism in response to both experimental parasite infection and OA. Access to cleaning services was modulated using a long-term removal experiment where cleaner wrasses were consistently removed from patch reefs around Lizard Island (Australia) for 17 years or left undisturbed. Only damselfish with access to cleaning stations had a negative metabolic response to parasite infection (maximum metabolic rate—ṀO_2Max; and both factorial and absolute aerobic scope). Moreover, after an acclimation period of 10 days to high CO₂ (∼1,000 µatm CO₂), the fish showed a decrease in factorial aerobic scope, being the lowest in fish without the access to cleaners. We propose that stronger positive selection for parasite tolerance might be present in reef fishes without the access to cleaners, but this might come at a cost, as readiness to deal with parasites can impact their response to other stressors, such as OA.

A Systematic Review of the Behavioural Changes and Physiological Adjustments of Elasmobranchs and Teleost’s to Ocean Acidification with a Focus on Sharks

In recent years, much attention has been focused on the impact of climate change, particularly via ocean acidification (OA), on marine organisms. Studying the impact of OA on long-living organisms, such as sharks, is especially challenging. When the ocean waters absorb anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2), slow-growing shark species with long generation times may be subjected to stress, leading to a decrease in functionality. Our goal was to examine the behavioral and physiological responses of sharks to OA and the possible impacts on their fitness and resilience. We conducted a systematic review in line with PRISMA-Analyses, of previously reported scientific experiments. We found that most studies used CO2 partial pressures (pCO2) that reflect representative concentration pathways for the year 2100 (e.g., pH ~7.8, pCO2 ~1000 μatm). Since there is a considerable knowledge gap on the effect of OA on sharks, we utilized existing data on bony fish to synthesize the available knowledge. Given the similarities between the behaviors and physiology of these two superclasses’ to changes in CO2 and pH levels, there is merit in including the available information on bony fish as well. Several studies indicated a decrease in shark fitness in relation to increased OA and CO2 levels. However, the decrease was species-specific and influenced by the intensity of the change in atmospheric CO2 concentration and other anthropogenic and environmental factors (e.g., fishing, temperature). Most studies involved only limited exposure to future environmental conditions and were conducted on benthic shark species studied in the laboratory rather than on apex predator species. While knowledge gaps exist, and more research is required, we conclude that anthropogenic factors are likely contributing to shark species’ vulnerability worldwide. However, the impact of OA on the long-term stability of shark populations is not unequivocal.

Whole-genome sequencing illuminates multifaceted targets of selection to humic substances in Eurasian perch

Extreme environments are inhospitable to the majority of species, but some organisms are able to survive in such hostile conditions due to evolutionary adaptations. For example, modern bony fishes have colonized various aquatic environments, including perpetually dark, hypoxic, hypersaline and toxic habitats. Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis) is among the few fish species of northern latitudes that is able to live in very acidic humic lakes. Such lakes represent almost "nocturnal" environments; they contain high levels of dissolved organic matter, which in addition to creating a challenging visual environment, also affects a large number of other habitat parameters and biotic interactions. To reveal the genomic targets of humic-associated selection, we performed whole-genome sequencing of perch originating from 16 humic and 16 clear-water lakes in northern Europe. We identified over 800,000 SNPs, of which >10,000 were identified as potential candidates under selection (associated with >3,000 genes) using multiple outlier approaches. Our findings suggest that adaptation to the humic environment may involve hundreds of regions scattered across the genome. Putative signals of adaptation were detected in genes and gene families with diverse functions, including organism development and ion transportation. The observed excess of variants under selection in regulatory regions highlights the importance of adaptive evolution via regulatory elements, rather than via protein sequence modification. Our study demonstrates the power of whole-genome analysis to illuminate multifaceted nature of humic adaptation and provides the foundation for further investigation of causal mutations underlying phenotypic traits of ecological and evolutionary importance.

Contrasting effects of constant and fluctuating pCO2 conditions on the exercise physiology of coral reef fishes

Ocean acidification (OA) is predicted to affect the physiology of some fishes. To date, most studies have investigated this issue using stable pCO₂ levels based on open ocean projections. Yet, most shallow, nearshore systems experience temporal and spatial pCO₂ fluctuations. For example, pCO₂ on coral reefs is highest at night and lowest during the day, but as OA progresses, both the average pCO₂ and magnitude of fluctuations are expected to increase. We exposed four coral reef fishes - Lutjanus fulviflamma, Caesio cuning, Abudefduf whitleyi, and Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus - to ambient, stable elevated, or fluctuating elevated pCO₂ conditions for 9-11 days. Then, we measured swimming performance, oxygen uptake rates, and haematological parameters during the day and at night. When compared to ambient pCO₂ conditions, L. fulviflamma, C. cuning, and A. whitleyi exposed to fluctuating elevated pCO₂ increased swimming performance, maximum oxygen uptake rates, and aerobic scope, regardless of time of day; whereas, the only nocturnal species studied, C. quinquelineatus, decreased maximum oxygen uptake rates and aerobic scope. Our findings suggest that exposure to fluctuating or stable elevated pCO₂ can physiologically benefit some coral reef fishes; however, other species, such as the cardinalfish examined here, may be more sensitive to future OA conditions.

The effects of constant and fluctuating elevated pCO2 levels on oxygen uptake rates of coral reef fishes

Ocean acidification, resulting from increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, can affect the physiological performance of some fishes. Most studies investigating ocean acidification have used stable pCO₂ treatments based on open ocean predictions. However, nearshore systems can experience substantial spatial and temporal variations in pCO₂. Notably, coral reefs are known to experience diel fluctuations in pCO₂, which are expected to increase on average and in magnitude in the future. Though we know these variations exist, relatively few studies have included fluctuating treatments when examining the effects of ocean acidification conditions on coral reef species. To address this, we exposed two species of damselfishes, Amblyglyphidodon curacao and Acanthochromis polyacanthus, to ambient pCO_2, a stable elevated pCO₂ treatment, and two fluctuating pCO₂ treatments (increasing and decreasing) over an 8 h period. Oxygen uptake rates were measured both while fish were swimming and resting at low-speed. These 8 h periods were followed by an exhaustive swimming test (U_crit) and blood draw examining swimming metrics and haematological parameters contributing to oxygen transport. When A. polyacanthus were exposed to stable pCO₂ conditions (ambient or elevated), they required more energy during the 8 h trial regardless of swimming type than fish exposed to either of the fluctuating pCO₂ treatments (increasing or decreasing). These results were reflected in the oxygen uptake rates during the U_crit tests, where fish exposed to fluctuating pCO₂ treatments had a higher factorial aerobic scope than fish exposed to stable pCO₂ treatments. By contrast, A. curacao showed no effect of pCO₂ treatment on swimming or oxygen uptake metrics. Our results show that responses to stable versus fluctuating pCO₂ differ between species - what is stressful for one species many not be stressful for another. Such asymmetries may have population- and community-level impacts under higher more variable pCO₂ conditions in the future.

An uncertain future: Effects of ocean acidification and elevated temperature on a New Zealand snapper (Chrysophrys auratus) population

Anthropogenic CO₂ emissions are warming and acidifying Earth's oceans, which is likely to lead to a variety of effects on marine ecosystems. Fish populations will be vulnerable to this change, and there is now substantial evidence of the direct and indirect effects of climate change on fish. There is also a growing effort to conceptualise the effects of climate change on fish within population models. In the present study knowledge about the response of New Zealand snapper to warming and acidification was incorporated within a stock assessment model. Specifically, a previous tank experiment on larval snapper suggested both positive and negative effects, and otolith increment analysis on wild snapper indicated that growth may initially increase, followed by a potential decline as temperatures continue to warm. As a result of this uncertainty, sensitivity analysis was performed by varying average virgin recruitment (R₀) by ±30%, adult growth by ±6%, but adjusting mean size at recruitment by +48% as we had better evidence for this increase. Overall adjustments to R₀ had the biggest impact on the future yield (at a management target of 40% of an unfished population) of the Hauraki Gulf snapper fishery. The most negative scenario suggested a 29% decrease in fishery yield, while the most optimistic scenario suggested a 44% increase. While largely uncertain, these results provide some scope for predicting future impacts on the snapper fishery. Given that snapper is a species where the response to climate change has been specifically investigated, increasing uncertainty in a future where climate change and other stressors interact in complex and unpredictable ways is likely to be an important consideration for the management of nearly all fish populations.

Beneficial effects of diel CO2 cycles on reef fish metabolic performance are diminished under elevated temperature

Elevated CO₂ levels have been shown to affect metabolic performance in some coral reef fishes. However, all studies to date have employed stable elevated CO₂ levels, whereas reef habitats can experience substantial diel fluctuations in pCO₂ ranging from ±50 to 600 μatm around the mean, fluctuations that are predicted to increase in magnitude by the end of the century. Additionally, past studies have often investigated the effect of elevated CO₂ in isolation, despite the fact that ocean temperatures will increase in tandem with CO₂ levels. Here, we tested the effects of stable (1000 μatm) versus diel-cycling (1000 ± 500 μatm) elevated CO₂ conditions and elevated temperature (+2 °C) on metabolic traits of juvenile spiny damselfish, Acanthochromis polyacanthus. Resting oxygen uptake rates (ṀO₂) were higher in fish exposed to stable elevated CO₂ conditions when compared to fish from stable control conditions, but were restored to control levels under diel CO₂ fluctuations. However, the benefits of diel CO₂ fluctuations were diminished at elevated temperature. Factorial aerobic scope showed a similar pattern, but neither maximal ṀO₂ nor absolute aerobic scope was affected by CO₂ or temperature. Our results suggest that diel CO₂ cycles can ameliorate the increased metabolic cost associated with elevated CO₂, but elevated temperature diminishes the benefits of diel CO₂ cycles. Thus, previous studies may have misestimated the effect of ocean acidification on the metabolic performance of reef fishes by not accounting for environmental CO₂ fluctuations. Our findings provide novel insights into the interacting effects of diel CO₂ fluctuations and temperature on the metabolic performance of reef fishes.

Intergenerational effects of CO2-induced stream acidification in the Trinidadian guppy (Poecilia reticulata)

Rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels are driving decreases in aquatic pH. As a result, there has been a surge in the number of studies examining the impact of acidification on aquatic fauna over the past decade. Thus far, both positive and negative impacts on the growth of fish have been reported, creating a disparity in results. Food availability and single-generation exposure have been proposed as some of the reasons for these variable results, where unrealistically high food treatments lead to fish overcoming the energetic costs associated with acclimating to decreased pH. Likewise, exposure of fish to lower pH for only one generation may not capture the likely ecological response to acidification that wild populations might experience over two or more generations. Here we compare somatic growth rates of laboratory populations of the Trinidadian guppy (Poecilia reticulata) exposed to pH levels that represent the average and lowest levels observed in streams in its native range. Specifically, we test the role of maternal acclimation and resource availability on the response of freshwater fishes to acidification. Acidification had a negative impact on growth at more natural, low food treatments. With high food availability, fish whose mothers were acclimated to the acidified treatment showed no reduction in growth, compared to controls. Compensatory growth was observed in both control-acidified (maternal-natal environment) and acidified-control groups, where fish that did not experience intergenerational effects achieved the same size in response to acidification as those that did, after an initial period of stunted growth. These results suggest that future studies on the effects of shifting mean of aquatic pH on fishes should take account of intergenerational effects and compensatory growth, as otherwise effects of acidification may be overestimated.

Aerobic performance of two tropical cephalopod species unaltered by prolonged exposure to projected future carbon dioxide levels

Squid and many other cephalopods live continuously on the threshold of their environmental oxygen limitations. If the abilities of squid to effectively take up oxygen are negatively affected by projected future carbon dioxide (CO₂) levels in ways similar to those demonstrated in some fish and invertebrates, it could affect the success of squid in future oceans. While there is evidence that acute exposure to elevated CO₂ has adverse effects on cephalopod respiratory performance, no studies have investigated this in an adult cephalopod after relatively prolonged exposure to elevated CO₂ or determined any effects on aerobic scope. Here, we tested the effects of prolonged exposure (≥20% of lifespan) to elevated CO₂ levels (~1000 μatm) on the routine and maximal oxygen uptake rates, aerobic scope and recovery time of two tropical cephalopod species, the two-toned pygmy squid, Idiosepius pygmaeus and the bigfin reef squid, Sepioteuthis lessoniana. Neither species exhibited evidence of altered aerobic performance after exposure to elevated CO₂ when compared to individuals held at control conditions. The recovery time of I. pygmaeus under both control and elevated CO₂ conditions was less than 1 hour, whereas S. lessoniana required approximately 8 hours to recover fully following maximal aerobic performance. This difference in recovery time may be due to the more sedentary behaviours of I. pygmaeus. The ability of these two cephalopod species to cope with prolonged exposure to elevated CO₂ without detriment to their aerobic performance suggests some resilience to an increasingly high CO₂ world.

A negative correlation between behavioural and physiological performance under ocean acidification and warming

Many studies have examined the average effects of ocean acidification and warming on phenotypic traits of reef fishes, finding variable, but often negative effects on behavioural and physiological performance. Yet the presence and nature of a relationship between these traits is unknown. A negative relationship between phenotypic traits could limit individual performance and even the capacity of populations to adapt to climate change. Here, we examined the relationship between behavioural and physiological performance of a juvenile reef fish under elevated CO₂ and temperature in a full factorial design. Behaviourally, the response to an alarm odour was negatively affected by elevated CO₂, but not elevated temperature. Physiologically, aerobic scope was significantly diminished under elevated temperature, but not under elevated CO₂. At the individual level, there was no relationship between behavioural and physiological traits in the control and single-stressor treatments. However, a statistically significant negative relationship was detected between the traits in the combined elevated CO₂ and temperature treatment. Our results demonstrate that trade-offs in performance between behavioural and physiological traits may only be evident when multiple climate change stressors are considered, and suggest that this negative relationship could limit adaptive potential to climate change.