The Relationship Between Running Biomechanics and Running Economy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies

BACKGROUND

Running biomechanics is considered an important determinant of running economy (RE). However, studies examining associations between running biomechanics and RE report inconsistent findings.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this systematic review was to determine associations between running biomechanics and RE and explore potential causes of inconsistency.

METHODS

Three databases were searched and monitored up to April 2023. Observational studies were included if they (i) examined associations between running biomechanics and RE, or (ii) compared running biomechanics between groups differing in RE, or (iii) compared RE between groups differing in running biomechanics during level, constant-speed, and submaximal running in healthy humans (18-65 years). Risk of bias was assessed using a modified tool for observational studies and considered in the results interpretation using GRADE. Meta-analyses were performed when two or more studies reported on the same outcome. Meta-regressions were used to explore heterogeneity with speed, coefficient of variation of height, mass, and age as continuous outcomes, and standardization of running shoes, oxygen versus energetic cost, and correction for resting oxygen or energy cost as categorical outcomes.

RESULTS

Fifty-one studies (n = 1115 participants) were included. Most spatiotemporal outcomes showed trivial and non-significant associations with RE: contact time r = - 0.02 (95% confidence interval [CI] - 0.15 to 0.12); flight time r = 0.11 (- 0.09 to 0.32); stride time r = 0.01 (- 0.8 to 0.50); duty factor r = - 0.06 (- 0.18 to 0.06); stride length r = 0.12 (- 0.15 to 0.38), and swing time r = 0.12 (- 0.13 to 0.36). A higher cadence showed a small significant association with a lower oxygen/energy cost (r = - 0.20 [- 0.35 to - 0.05]). A smaller vertical displacement and higher vertical and leg stiffness showed significant moderate associations with lower oxygen/energy cost (r = 0.35, - 0.31, - 0.28, respectively). Ankle, knee, and hip angles at initial contact, midstance or toe-off as well as their range of motion, peak vertical ground reaction force, mechanical work variables, and electromyographic activation were not significantly associated with RE, although potentially relevant trends were observed for some outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Running biomechanics can explain 4-12% of the between-individual variation in RE when considered in isolation, with this magnitude potentially increasing when combining different variables. Implications for athletes, coaches, wearable technology, and researchers are discussed in the review.

PROTOCOL REGISTRATION

https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/293 ND (OpenScience Framework).

Changes in running economy and running technique following 6 months of running with and without wearable-based real-time feedback

BACKGROUND

An increasing number of commercially available wearables provide real-time feedback on running biomechanics with the aim to reduce injury risk or improve performance.

OBJECTIVE

Investigate whether real-time feedback by wearable insoles (ARION) alters running biomechanics and improves running economy more as compared to unsupervised running training. We also explored the correlation between changes in running biomechanics and running economy.

METHODS

Forty recreational runners were randomized to an intervention and control group and performed ~6 months of in-field training with or without wearable-based real-time feedback on running technique and speed. Running economy and running biomechanics were measured in lab conditions without feedback pre and post intervention at four speeds.

RESULTS

Twenty-two individuals (13 control, 9 intervention) completed both tests. Both groups significantly reduced their energetic cost by an average of -6.1% and -7.7% for the control and intervention groups, respectively. The reduction in energy cost did not significantly differ between groups overall (-0.07 ± 0.14 J∙kg∙m-1 , -1.5%, p = 0.63). There were significant changes in spatiotemporal metrics, but their magnitude was minor and did not differ between the groups. There were no significant changes in running kinematics within or between groups. However, alterations in running biomechanics beyond typical session-to-session variation were observed during some in-field sessions for individuals that received real-time feedback.

CONCLUSION

Alterations in running biomechanics as observed during some in-field sessions for individuals receiving wearable-based real-time feedback did not result in significant differences in running economy or running biomechanics when measured in controlled lab conditions without feedback.

Effects of a 12-week gait retraining program on the Achilles tendon adaptation of habitually shod runners

PURPOSE

This study investigated the effects of a 12-week gait retraining program on the morphological and mechanical properties of the Achilles tendon (AT) during running on the basis of real-time dynamic ultrasound imaging.

METHODS

A total of 30 male recreational runners who were used to wearing cushioned shoes with a rearfoot strike (RFS) pattern were recruited. They were randomized into a retraining group (RG, n = 15) and a control group (CG, n = 15). The RG group was asked to run in five-fingered minimalist shoes with a forefoot strike (FFS) pattern, and the CG group was asked to keep their strike pattern. Three training sessions were performed per week. All the participants in RG uploaded running tracks obtained through a mobile application (.jpg) after each session for training supervision. The ground reaction force, kinematics, and kinetics of the ankle joint at 10 km/h were collected using an instrumented split-belt treadmill and a motion capture system. The morphological (length and cross-sectional area) and mechanical characteristics (force, stress, strain, etc.) of AT in vivo were recorded and calculated with a synchronous ultrasonic imaging instrument before and after the intervention. Repeated two-way ANOVA was used to compare the aforementioned parameters.

RESULTS

A total of 28 participants completed the training. The strike angle of RG after training was significantly smaller than that before training and significantly smaller than that of CG after training (F (1, 13)  = 23.068, p < 0.001, partial η2  = 0.640). The length (F (1, 13)  = 10.086, p = 0.007, partial η2  = 0.437) and CSA (F (1, 13)  = 7.475, p = 0.017, partial η2  = 0.365) of AT in RG increased after training. A significant main effect for time was observed for the time-to-peak AT force (F (1, 13)  = 5.225, p = 0.040, partial η2  = 0.287), average (F (1, 13)  = 7.228, p = 0.019, partial η2  = 0.357), and peak AT loading rate (F (1, 13)  = 11.687, p = 0.005, partial η2  = 0.473).

CONCLUSION

Preliminary evidence indicated that a 12-week gait retraining program could exert a beneficial effect on AT. 57% (8/14) runners in RG shifted from RFS to FFS pattern. Although not all runners were categorized as FFS pattern after the intervention, their foot strike angle was reduced. Retraining primarily positively promoted AT morphological properties (i.e., CSA and length) to strengthen AT capability for mechanical loading.

The application of the Lyapunov Exponent to analyse human performance: A systematic review

Variability is a normal component of human movement, allowing one to adapt to environmental perturbations. It can be analysed from linear or non-linear perspectives. The Lyapunov Exponent (LyE) is a commonly used non-linear technique, which quantifies local dynamic stability. It has been applied primarily to walking gait and appears to be limited application in other movements. Therefore, this systematic review aims to summarise research methodologies applying the LyE to movements, excluding walking gait. Four databases were searched using keywords related to movement variability, dynamic stability, LyE and divergence exponent. Articles written in English, using the LyE to analyse movements, excluding walking gait were included for analysis. 31 papers were included for data extraction. Quality appraisal was conducted and information related to the movement, data capture method, data type, apparatus, sampling rate, body segment/joint, number of strides/steps, state space reconstruction, algorithm, filtering, surrogation and time normalisation were extracted. LyE values were reported in supplementary materials (Appendix 2). Running was the most prevalent non-walking gait movement assessed. Methodologies to calculate the LyE differed in various aspects resulting in different LyE values being generated. Additionally, test-retest reliability, was only conducted in one study, which should be addressed in future.

Asymmetries of foot strike patterns during running in high-level female and male soccer players

BACKROUND

Foot strike pattern (FSP) is defined by the way the foot makes initial ground contact and is influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic factors. This study investigated the effect of running speed on asymmetries of FSP.

METHODS

Seventeen female and nineteen male soccer players performed an incremental running test on an instrumented treadmill starting at 2.0 m/s until complete exhaustion. Force plate data were used to categorize foot strikes into rearfoot (RFS) and non-rearfoot strikes. Additionally, peak vertical ground reaction force (peakGRF) and stride time were calculated. The symmetry index (SI) was used to quantify lateral asymmetries between legs.

RESULTS

The SI indicated asymmetries of the rate of RFS (%RFS) of approximately 30% at slow running speed which decreased to 4.4% during faster running speed (p = 0.001). There were minor asymmetries in peakGRF and stride time at each running stage. Running speed influenced %RFS (p < 0.001), peakGRF (p < 0.001) and stride time (p < 0.001). Significant interaction effects between running speed and sex were shown for %RFS (p = 0.033), peakGRF (p < 0.001) and stride time (p = 0.041).

CONCLUSION

FSP of soccer players are asymmetric at slower running speed, but symmetry increases with increasing speed. Future studies should consider that FSP are non-stationary and influenced by running speed but also differ between legs.

"Biofeedback-based return to sport": individualization through objective assessments

Elite athletes are regularly exposed to high and repetitive mechanical stresses and impacts, resulting in high injury rates. The consequences of injury can range from time lost from training and competition to chronic physical and psychological burden, with no guarantee that the athlete will return to preinjury levels of sport activity and performance. Prominent predictors include load management and previous injury, highlighting the importance of the postinjury period for effective return to sport (RTS). Currently, there is conflicting information on how to choose and assess the best reentry strategy. Treating RTS as a continuum, with controlled progression of training load and complexity, seems to provide benefits in this process. Furthermore, objectivity has been identified as a critical factor in improving the effectiveness of RTS. We propose that assessments derived from biomechanical measurements in functional settings can provide the objectivity needed for regular biofeedback cycles. These cycles should aim to identify weaknesses, customize the load, and inform on the status of RTS progress. This approach emphasizes individualization as the primary determinant of RTS and provides a solid foundation for achieving it.

Duty factor and foot-strike pattern do not represent similar running pattern at the individual level

Runners were classified using their duty factor (DF) and using their foot-strike pattern (FSP; rearfoot, midfoot, or forefoot strikers), determined from their foot-strike angle (FSA). High and low DF runners showed different FSPs but DF was assumed to not only reflect what happens at initial contact with the ground (more global than FSP/FSA). Hence, FSP and DF groups should not necessarily be constituted by the same runners. However, the relation between FSP and DF groups has never been investigated, leading to the aim of this study. One hundred runners ran at 9, 11, and 13 km/h. Force data (1000 Hz) and whole-body kinematics (200 Hz) were acquired by an instrumented treadmill and optoelectronic system and were used to classify runners according to their FSA and DF. Weak correlations were obtained between FSA and DF values and a sensitivity of 50% was reported between FSP and DF groups, i.e., only one in two runners was attributed to the DF group supposedly corresponding to the FSP group. Therefore, ‘local’ FSP/FSA and DF do not represent similar running pattern information when investigated at the individual level and DF should be preferred to FSP/FSA when evaluating the global running pattern of a runner.

Sex-specific tuning of modular muscle activation patterns for locomotion in young and older adults

There is increasing evidence that including sex as a biological variable is of crucial importance to promote rigorous, repeatable and reproducible science. In spite of this, the body of literature that accounts for the sex of participants in human locomotion studies is small and often produces controversial results. Here, we investigated the modular organization of muscle activation patterns for human locomotion using the concept of muscle synergies with a double purpose: i) uncover possible sex-specific characteristics of motor control and ii) assess whether these are maintained in older age. We recorded electromyographic activities from 13 ipsilateral muscles of the lower limb in young and older adults of both sexes walking (young and old) and running (young) on a treadmill. The data set obtained from the 215 participants was elaborated through non-negative matrix factorization to extract the time-independent (i.e., motor modules) and time-dependent (i.e., motor primitives) coefficients of muscle synergies. We found sparse sex-specific modulations of motor control. Motor modules showed a different contribution of hip extensors, knee extensors and foot dorsiflexors in various synergies. Motor primitives were wider (i.e., lasted longer) in males in the propulsion synergy for walking (but only in young and not in older adults) and in the weight acceptance synergy for running. Moreover, the complexity of motor primitives was similar in younger adults of both sexes, but lower in older females as compared to older males. In essence, our results revealed the existence of small but defined sex-specific differences in the way humans control locomotion and that these are not entirely maintained in older age.

The Effectiveness of Gait Retraining on Running Kinematics, Kinetics, Performance, Pain, and Injury in Distance Runners: A Systematic Review With Meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effectiveness of running gait retraining on kinematics, kinetics, performance, pain, and injury in distance runners.

DESIGN

Intervention systematic review with meta-analysis.

LITERATURE SEARCH

Seven electronic databases from inception to March 2021.

TRIAL SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized controlled trials that (1) evaluated running gait retraining compared to no intervention, usual training, placebo, or standard care and (2) reported biomechanical, physiological, performance, or clinical outcomes.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Random-effects metaanalyses were completed, and the certainty of evidence was judged using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) criteria. We categorized interventions into step rate, non-rearfoot footstrike, impact, ground contact time, and multiparameter subgroups.

RESULTS

We included 19 trials (673 participants). Moderate-certainty evidence indicated step rate gait retraining increased step rate (SMD 1.03 [95% confidence interval {CI}: 0.63, 1.44]; number of trials (N): 4; I²: 0%) and reduced average vertical loading rate (SMD -0.57 [95% CI, -1.05 to -0.09], N: 3; I²: 0%). Low-certainty evidence indicated non-rearfoot footstrike retraining increased knee flexion at initial contact (SMD 0.74 [95% CI, 0.11 to 1.37]; N: 2; I²: 0%), but did not alter running economy (SMD 0.21 [95% CI, -1.11 to 1.52]; N: 3; I²: 19%).). Low-certainty evidence indicated multiparameter retraining did not alter running economy (SMD 0.32 [-0.39, 1.02]; N: 3; I²: 19%) or performance (SMD 0.14 [95% CI, -4.87 to 4.58]; N: 2; I²: 18%). Insufficient trials reported on pain outcomes. Two trials demonstrated reduced 1-year injury incidence following gait retraining.

CONCLUSIONS

Gait retraining interventions altered step rate and knee kinematics, lowered vertical loading rates, and did not affect running performance. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2022;52(4):192-206. Epub 05 Feb 2022. doi:10.2519/jospt.2022.10585.

Runners Employ Different Strategies to Cope With Increased Speeds Based on Their Initial Strike Patterns

In this paper we examined how runners with different initial foot strike pattern (FSP) develop their pattern over increasing speeds. The foot strike index (FSI) of 47 runners [66% initially rearfoot strikers (RFS)] was measured in six speeds (2.5–5.0 ms⁻¹), with the hypotheses that the FSI would increase (i.e., move toward the fore of the foot) in RFS strikers, but remain similar in mid- or forefoot strikers (MFS) runners. The majority of runners (77%) maintained their original FSP by increasing speed. However, we detected a significant (16.8%) decrease in the FSI in the MFS group as a function of running speed, showing changes in the running strategy, despite the absence of a shift from one FSP to another. Further, while both groups showed a decrease in contact times, we found a group by speed interaction (p < 0.001) and specifically that this decrease was lower in the MFS group with increasing running speeds. This could have implications in the metabolic energy consumption for MFS-runners, typically measured at low speeds for the assessment of running economy.

Running barefoot leads to lower running stability compared to shod running - results from a randomized controlled study

Local dynamic running stability is the ability of a dynamic system to compensate for small perturbations during running. While the immediate effects of footwear on running biomechanics are frequently investigated, no research has studied the long-term effects of barefoot vs. shod running on local dynamic running stability. In this randomized single-blinded controlled trial, young adults novice to barefoot running were randomly allocated to a barefoot or a cushioned footwear running group. Over an 8-week-period, both groups performed a weekly 15-min treadmill running intervention in the allocated condition at 70% of their VO2 max velocity. During each session, an inertial measurement unit on the tibia recorded kinematic data (angular velocity) which was used to determine the short-time largest Lyapunov exponents as a measure of local dynamic running stability. One hundred running gait cycles at the beginning, middle, and end of each running session were analysed using one mixed linear multilevel random intercept model. Of the 41 included participants (48.8% females), 37 completed the study (drop-out = 9.7%). Participants in the barefoot running group exhibited lower running stability than in the shod running group (p = 0.037) with no changes during the intervention period (p = 0.997). Within a single session, running stability decreased over the course of the 15-min run (p = 0.012) without differences between both groups (p = 0.060). Changing from shod to barefoot running reduces running stability not only in the acute phase but also in the longer term. While running stability is a relatively new concept, it enables further insight into the biomechanical influence of footwear.

Enthalpy efficiency of the soleus muscle contributes to improvements in running economy

During human running, the soleus, as the main plantar flexor muscle, generates the majority of the mechanical work through active shortening. The fraction of chemical energy that is converted into muscular work (enthalpy efficiency) depends on the muscle shortening velocity. Here, we investigated the soleus muscle fascicle behaviour during running with respect to the enthalpy efficiency as a mechanism that could contribute to improvements in running economy after exercise-induced increases of plantar flexor strength and Achilles tendon (AT) stiffness. Using a controlled longitudinal study design (n = 23) featuring a specific 14-week muscle-tendon training, increases in muscle strength (10%) and tendon stiffness (31%) and reduced metabolic cost of running (4%) were found only in the intervention group (n = 13, p < 0.05). Following training, the soleus fascicles operated at higher enthalpy efficiency during the phase of muscle-tendon unit (MTU) lengthening (15%) and in average over stance (7%, p < 0.05). Thus, improvements in energetic cost following increases in plantar flexor strength and AT stiffness seem attributed to increased enthalpy efficiency of the operating soleus muscle. The results further imply that the soleus energy production in the first part of stance, when the MTU is lengthening, may be crucial for the overall metabolic energy cost of running.

Duty Factor Reflects Lower Limb Kinematics of Running

The aim was to identify the differences in lower limb kinematics used by high (DFhigh) and low (DFlow) duty factor (DF) runners, particularly their sagittal plane (hip, knee, and ankle) joint angles and pelvis and foot segment angles during stance. Fifty-nine runners were divided in two DF groups based on their mean DF measured across a range of speeds. Temporal characteristics and whole-body three-dimensional kinematics of the running step were recorded from treadmill runs at 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18 km/h. Across speeds, DFhigh runners, which limit vertical displacement of the COM and promote forward propulsion, exhibited more lower limb flexion than DFlow during the ground contact time and were rearfoot strikers. On the contrary, DFlow runners used a more extended lower limb than DFhigh due to a stiffer leg and were midfoot and forefoot strikers. Therefore, two different lower limb kinematic mechanisms are involved in running and the one of an individual is reflected by the DF.

Fuzziness of muscle synergies in patients with multiple sclerosis indicates increased robustness of motor control during walking

Deficits during gait poses a significant threat to the quality of life in patients with Multiple Sclerosis (MS). Using the muscle synergy concept, we investigated the modular organization of the neuromuscular control during walking in MS patients compared to healthy participants (HP). We hypothesized a widening and increased fuzziness of motor primitives (e.g. increased overlap intervals) in MS patients compared to HP allowing the motor system to increase robustness during walking. We analysed temporal gait parameters, local dynamic stability and muscle synergies from myoelectric signals of 13 ipsilateral leg muscles using non-negative matrix factorization. Compared to HP, MS patients showed a significant decrease in the local dynamic stability of walking during both, preferred and fixed (0.7 m/s) speed. MS patients demonstrated changes in time-dependent activation patterns (motor primitives) and alterations of the relative muscle contribution to the specific synergies (motor modules). We specifically found a widening in three out of four motor primitives during preferred speed and in two out of four during fixed speed in MS patients compared to HP. The widening increased the fuzziness of motor control in MS patients, which allows the motor system to increase its robustness when coping with pathology-related motor deficits during walking.

Swaying slower reduces the destabilizing effects of a compliant surface on voluntary sway dynamics

The ability to control weight shifting (voluntary sway) is a crucial factor for stability during standing. Postural tracking of an oscillating visual target when standing on a compliant surface (e.g. foam) is a challenging weight shifting task that may alter the stability of the system and the muscle activation patterns needed to compensate for the perturbed state. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of surface stability and sway frequency on the muscle activation of the lower limb, during visually guided voluntary postural sway. Seventeen volunteers performed a 2-min voluntary sway task in the anterior-posterior direction following with their projected center of pressure (CoP_AP) a periodically oscillating visual target on a screen. The target oscillated at a frequency of 0.25 Hz or 0.125 Hz, while the participants swayed on solid ground (stable surface) or on a foam pad (unstable surface), resulting in four experimental conditions. The electromyogram (EMG) of 13 lower limb muscles was measured and the target–CoP_AP coupling was evaluated with coherence analysis, whereas the difference in the stability of the system between the conditions was estimated by the maximum Lyapunov exponent (MLE). The results showed that slower oscillations outperformed the faster in terms of coherence and revealed greater stability. On the other hand, unstable ground resulted in an undershooting of the CoP_AP to the target and greater MLE. Regarding the EMG data, a decreased triceps surae muscle activation at the low sway frequency compared to the higher was observed, whereas swaying on foam induced higher activation on the tibialis anterior as well. It is concluded that swaying voluntarily on an unstable surface results in reduced CoP_AP and joint kinematics stability, that is accomplished by increasing the activation of the distal leg muscles, in order to compensate for this perturbation. The reduction of the sway frequency limits the effect of the unstable surface, on the head and upper body, improves the temporal component of coherence between CoP and target, whereas EMG activity is decreased. These findings might have implications in rehabilitation programs.

Habitual foot strike pattern does not affect simulated triceps surae muscle metabolic energy consumption during running

Foot strike pattern affects ankle joint work and triceps surae muscle-tendon dynamics during running. Whether these changes in muscle-tendon dynamics also affect triceps surae muscle energy consumption is still unknown. In addition, as the triceps surae muscle accounts for a substantial amount of the whole-body metabolic energy consumption, changes in triceps surae energy consumption may affect whole-body metabolic energy consumption. However, direct measurements of muscle metabolic energy consumption during dynamic movements is difficult. Model-based approaches can be used to estimate individual muscle and whole-body metabolic energy consumption based on Hill type muscle models. In this study, we use an integrated experimental and dynamic optimization approach to compute muscle states (muscle forces, lengths, velocities, excitations and activations) of 10 habitual midfoot/forefoot striking and nine habitual rearfoot striking runners while running at 10 and 14 km h^-1 The Achilles tendon stiffness of the musculoskeletal model was adapted to fit experimental ultrasound data of the gastrocnemius medialis muscle during ground contact. Next, we calculated triceps surae muscle and whole-body metabolic energy consumption using four different metabolic energy models provided in the literature. Neither triceps surae metabolic energy consumption (P>0.35) nor whole-body metabolic energy consumption (P>0.14) was different between foot strike patterns, regardless of the energy model used or running speed tested. Our results provide new evidence that midfoot/forefoot and rearfoot strike patterns are metabolically equivalent.

Real-time feedback by wearables in running: Current approaches, challenges and suggestions for improvements

Injuries and lack of motivation are common reasons for discontinuation of running. Real-time feedback from wearables can reduce discontinuation by reducing injury risk and improving performance and motivation. There are however several limitations and challenges with current real-time feedback approaches. We discuss these limitations and challenges and provide a framework to optimise real-time feedback for reducing injury risk and improving performance and motivation. We first discuss the reasons why individuals run and propose that feedback targeted to these reasons can improve motivation and compliance. Secondly, we review the association of running technique and running workload with injuries and performance and we elaborate how real-time feedback on running technique and workload can be applied to reduce injury risk and improve performance and motivation. We also review different feedback modalities and motor learning feedback strategies and their application to real-time feedback. Briefly, the most effective feedback modality and frequency differ between variables and individuals, but a combination of modalities and mixture of real-time and delayed feedback is most effective. Moreover, feedback promoting perceived competence, autonomy and an external focus can improve motivation, learning and performance. Although the focus is on wearables, the challenges and practical applications are also relevant for laboratory-based gait retraining.

Neuromuscular organisation and robustness of postural control in the presence of perturbations

Perturbation-based exercise interventions challenge balance and improve reactive motor control. Our purpose was to investigate the modular organisation during a standing balance task in both stable and unstable conditions to provide new insights into the neuromuscular control mechanisms needed to cope with perturbations. Fifteen participants performed 54 cycles of a specific task (i.e. pass from a double- to a single-leg standing) on stable ground and an unstable oscillating platform (Posturomed). Muscle synergies were extracted from the electromyographic activity of thirteen lower limb muscles. The maximum Lyapunov exponents of different body segments were calculated using kinematic data. We found two synergies functionally associated with the single- and double-leg stance in both stable and unstable conditions. Nonetheless, in the unstable condition participants needed an extra muscle synergy also functionally related to the single stance. Although a simple organisation of the neuromuscular system was sufficient to maintain the postural control in both conditions, the increased challenge in the oscillating platform was solved by adding one extra synergy. The addition of a new synergy with complementary function highlighted an increased motor output’s robustness (i.e. ability to cope with errors) in the presence of perturbations.

Recognition of Foot Strike Pattern in Asian Recreational Runners

Close to 90% of recreational runners rearfoot strike in a long-distance road race. This prevalence has been obtained from North American cohorts of runners. The prevalence of rearfoot strikers has not been extensively examined in an Asian population of recreational runners. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of rearfoot, midfoot, and forefoot strikers during a long-distance road race in Asian recreational runners and compare this prevalence to reported values in the scientific literature. To do so, we classified the foot strike pattern of 950 recreational runners at the 10 km mark of the Singapore marathon (77% Asian field). We observed 71.1%, 16.6%, 1.7%, and 10.6% of rearfoot, midfoot, forefoot, and asymmetric strikers, respectively. Chi-squared tests revealed significant differences between our foot strike pattern distribution and those reported from North American cohorts (P < 0.001). Our foot strike pattern distribution was similar to one reported from elite half-marathon runners racing in Japan (Fisher exact test, P = 0.168). We conclude that the prevalence of rearfoot strikers is lower in Asian than North American recreational runners. Running research should consider and report ethnicity of participants given that ethnicity can potentially explain biomechanical differences in running patterns.

Effect of habitual foot-strike pattern on the gastrocnemius medialis muscle-tendon interaction and muscle force production during running

The interaction between gastrocnemius medialis (GM) muscle and Achilles tendon, i.e., muscle-tendon unit (MTU) interaction, plays an important role in minimizing the metabolic cost of running. Foot-strike pattern (FSP) has been suggested to alter MTU interaction and subsequently the metabolic cost of running. However, metabolic data from experimental studies on FSP are inconsistent, and a comparison of MTU interaction between FSP is still lacking. We, therefore, investigated the effect of habitual rearfoot and mid-/forefoot striking on MTU interaction, ankle joint work, and plantar flexor muscle force production while running at 10 and 14 km/h. GM muscle fascicles of 9 rearfoot and 10 mid-/forefoot strikers were tracked using dynamic ultrasonography during treadmill running. We collected kinetic and kinematic data and used musculoskeletal models to determine joint angles and calculate MTU lengths. In addition, we used dynamic optimization to assess plantar flexor muscle forces. During ground contact, GM fascicle shortening ( P = 0.02) and average contraction velocity ( P = 0.01) were 40-45% greater in rearfoot strikers than mid-/forefoot strikers. Differences in contraction velocity were especially prominent during early ground contact. Moreover, GM ( P = 0.02) muscle force was greater during early ground contact in mid-/forefoot strikers than rearfoot strikers. Interestingly, we did not find differences in stretch or recoil of the series elastic element between FSP. Our results suggest that, for the GM, the reduced muscle energy cost associated with lower fascicle contraction velocity in mid-/forefoot strikers may be counteracted by greater muscle forces during early ground contact. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Kinetic and kinematic differences between foot-strike patterns during running imply (not previously reported) altered muscle-tendon interaction. Here, we studied muscle-tendon interaction using ultrasonography. We found greater fascicle contraction velocities and lower muscle forces in rearfoot compared with mid-/forefoot strikers. Our results suggest that the higher metabolic energy demand due to greater fascicle contraction velocities might offset the lower metabolic energy demand due to lower muscle forces in rearfoot compared with mid-/forefoot strikers.