Effect of water temperature on diel feeding, locomotion behaviour and digestive physiology in the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus

Swing Regulates Movement Direction in the Sea Cucumber Apostichopus japonicus in the Presence of Food Cue: New Insights into Movement Patterns

Regulating movement direction is essential in the locomotion of animals. Sea cucumbers, as eyeless animals, do not have eyes for the perception of the surrounding environment and food. They have a unique way of swinging their bodies when a food cue is detected, although they lack an important perceptual tool. The present study investigated the movement patterns of the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus in the absence of a food cue (experiment 1) and in the presence of a food cue (experiment 2). In experiment 1, we found that the movement of sea cucumbers was close to a linear motion (motion linearity 0.91 ± 0.01). In experiment 2, sea cucumbers most frequently adjusted the movement direction when being exposed to food (84 times/216 min), indicating that sea cucumbers adjusted the direction of movement in the swing state but not the motion state. In experiment 2, we found significantly lower time in the immobility state in the sea cucumbers in the presence of food cues compared to that of those without being exposed to food cues, and the frequency of the motion state in response to food cues was 1.6 times than that of those without food cue. This suggests that food cues cause the change in motion state in sea cucumbers. Swing frequency was 1.7 times higher in sea cucumbers exposed to food cues than that of those not exposed to food cues. Further, sea cucumbers in the presence of food showed significantly better performances in swing angle and swing velocity compared to those not exposed to food cues. This suggests that food cue significantly affects the swing state of sea cucumbers. Notably, the present study described the movement patterns of sea cucumbers when they detected food cues, and other factors (such as the detection of predators) need to be further studied. The present study provides new insights into the regulation of movement direction in eyeless organisms.

Impacts of ocean warming on echinoderms: A meta-analysis

Rising ocean temperatures are threatening marine species and populations worldwide, and ectothermic taxa are particularly vulnerable. Echinoderms are an ecologically important phylum of marine ectotherms and shifts in their population dynamics can have profound impacts on the marine environment. The effects of warming on echinoderms are highly variable across controlled laboratory-based studies. Accordingly, synthesis of these studies will facilitate the better understanding of broad patterns in responses of echinoderms to ocean warming. Herein, a meta-analysis incorporating the results of 85 studies (710 individual responses) is presented, exploring the effects of warming on various performance predictors. The mean responses of echinoderms to all magnitudes of warming were compared across multiple biological responses, ontogenetic life stages, taxonomic classes, and regions, facilitated by multivariate linear mixed effects models. Further models were conducted, which only incorporated responses to warming greater than the projected end-of-century mean annual temperatures at the collection sites. This meta-analysis provides evidence that ocean warming will generally accelerate metabolic rate (+32%) and reduce survival (-35%) in echinoderms, and echinoderms from subtropical (-9%) and tropical (-8%) regions will be the most vulnerable. The relatively high vulnerability of echinoderm larvae to warming (-20%) indicates that this life stage may be a significant developmental bottleneck in the near-future, likely reducing successful recruitment into populations. Furthermore, asteroids appear to be the class of echinoderms that are most negatively affected by elevated temperature (-30%). When considering only responses to magnitudes of warming representative of end-of-century climate change projections, the negative impacts on asteroids, tropical species and juveniles were exacerbated (-51%, -34% and -40% respectively). The results of these analyses enable better predictions of how keystone and invasive echinoderm species may perform in a warmer ocean, and the possible consequences for populations, communities and ecosystems.

Structural characteristics of orexin receptor type 2 in Pacific abalone and its diurnal expression pattern after fasting and re-feeding

Pacific abalone (Haliotis discus hannai) is a typical nocturnal organism. To examine the circadian expression pattern of orexin receptor type 2 (OX₂R) and its potential effect on the feeding behavior of abalone, the coding region sequence of OX₂R that is 1215 bp in length and encodes 404 amino acids was first cloned using the rapid amplification of cDNA ends technique. A recombinant expression vector was constructed for H. discus hannai based on the OX₂R protein, obtaining a recombinant protein with a molecular weight of 46 kDa. Polyclonal antibody was prepared with the purified recombinant protein used as the antigen, and the antibody titer of ≥512 K was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The expression levels of OX₂R determined using western blotting were highest in the intestinal tract (P < 0.05), but they were not significantly different from the levels in the pedal. Immunofluorescence experiments affirmed that OX₂R was widely expressed in the columnar cells of the intestinal mucosal epithelium. To further account for the relationship between the onset of feeding behavior and the expression level of OX₂R in abalone, the circadian expression characteristics of OX₂R were analyzed by dissecting the intestinal tissues after three days of normal feeding and fasting and following the refeeding treatment. The expression levels of OX₂R in the refeeding group were significantly higher than those in the normal feeding and fasting groups at any time point (P < 0.05). The cosine curve analysis revealed that the expression levels of OX₂R lost rhythmicity after fasting. Based on the quantification of behavioral data for abalone after fasting and refeeding, the cumulative movement distance and movement duration in each group followed a significant cosine rhythm (P < 0.05), which is consistent with abalone's nocturnal ecological habits. However, the cumulative movement distance and movement duration in the fasting group were significantly lower than those in the normal feeding and refeeding groups (P < 0.05). The peak phases of the cumulative movement distance and movement duration in the refeeding group (ZT08:22 and ZT08:44) shifted backward compared to the normal feeding group (ZT07:33 and ZT07:39). The above results first identified the structural characteristics and circadian expression patterns of OX₂R in the marine mollusk abalone, which may reveal the molecular mechanism behind the generation of a feeding rhythm in marine nocturnal organisms and serve as a tool helping to maintain the diversity of marine benthic resources.

Responses of digestive metabolism to marine heatwaves in pearl oysters

Marine heatwaves (MHWs) have increased in intensity and frequency in global oceans, causing deleterious effects on many marine organisms and ecosystems they support. Bivalves are among the most vulnerable taxonomic groups to intensifying MHWs, yet little is known about the underlying mechanisms. Here, we investigated the impact of MHWs on the digestive metabolism of pearl oysters (Pinctada maxima). Two moderate and severe scenarios of MHWs were performed by increasing seawater temperature respectively from 24 °C to 28 °C and 32 °C for 3 days. When subjected to MHWs and with increasing intensity, pearl oysters significantly enhanced their digestive enzymatic activities, such as lipase and amylase. LC-MS-based metabolomics revealed negative responses in the lipid metabolism (e.g., steroid biosynthesis, glycerophospholipid metabolism, and sphingolipid metabolism), the amino acid metabolism (e.g., glutamate, histidine, arginine, and proline), and the B-vitamins metabolism. These findings indicate that the digestive metabolism of marine bivalves can likely succumb to intensifying MHWs events.

Heat stress and evisceration caused lipid metabolism and neural transduction changes in sea cucumber: Evidence from metabolomics

When encountering adverse environmental conditions, some holothurians can eject their internal organs in a process called evisceration. As global warming intensified, eviscerated and intact sea cucumbers both experience heat stress, but how they performed was uncertain. We constructed 24 metabolomics profiles to reveal the metabolite changes of eviscerated and intact sea cucumbers under normal and high temperature conditions, respectively. Carboxylic acids and fatty acyls were the most abundant metabolic categories in evisceration and heat stress treatments, respectively. Neural transduction was involved in sea cucumber evisceration and stress response, and the commonly enriched pathway was "neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction". Lipid metabolism in eviscerated sea cucumbers differed from those of intact individuals and was more seriously affected by heat stress. Choline is a key metabolite for revealing the evisceration mechanism. Our results contribute to understanding the mechanisms of evisceration in sea cucumbers, and how sea cucumbers might respond to increasingly warming ocean conditions.

Plasticity of Respiratory Function Accommodates High Oxygen Demand in Breeding Sea Cucumbers

Physiological plasticity allows animals to adjust their physiological function to abiotic and biotic variations. It has been mostly studied in the context of response to external factors and not much is known on how animals adjust their physiology to cope with variations in internal conditions. The process of reproduction implies gonadal maturation and other internal changes, bringing various challenges to the animal such as an increased demand for energy and oxygen. Here, the capacity of the sea cucumber, Apostichopus japonicus to adjust its respiratory function and physiological mechanisms during reproduction was studied using a time-lapse videography and metabolomics approach. The results showed that reproduction caused a significant increase in oxygen consumption in A. japonicus. Interestingly, breeding sea cucumbers can accommodate the high oxygen demand by accelerating respiratory rate. However, to maintain a necessary high level of respiratory activity during reproduction, sea cucumbers need consume large amounts of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In addition, the metabolomic data suggests that oxidative stress and hormone regulation are the physiological mechanisms linking reproduction and respiratory function. Altogether, these findings suggest that plasticity of respiratory function is an effective tactic to cope with high oxygen demand during reproduction.

The Effect of Melatonin on Locomotor Behavior and Muscle Physiology in the Sea Cucumber Apostichopus japonicus

Melatonin is a highly conserved hormone in evolutionary history. It occurs in numerous organisms and plays a role in the endocrine and immune systems. Locomotor behavior is a basic behavior in animals and is an important indicator of circadian rhythms, which are coordinated by the nervous and endocrine systems. To date, the effect of melatonin on locomotor behavior has been studied in vertebrates, including syrian hamsters, sparrows, rats, zebrafish, goldfish, and flatworms. However, there have been few studies of the effects of melatonin on locomotor behavior in marine invertebrates. The goals of present study were to show the existence of melatonin in the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus and to evaluate its effect on locomotor activity. In addition, muscle tissues from control and melatonin-treated sea cucumbers were tested using ultra performance liquid chromatography and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) to determine the changes of metabolic activity in muscle. Melatonin was present in the coelomic fluid of A. japonicus at a concentration of ∼135.0 ng/L. The total distance traveled and number steps taken over 9 h after melatonin administration decreased with increasing concentration of the melatonin dose. Mean and maximum velocity of movement and stride length and stride frequency also decreased, but their differences were not statistically significant. Overall, these results suggest that melatonin administration had a sedative effect on A. japonicus. The levels of 22 different metabolites were altered in the muscle tissues of melatonin-treated sea cucumbers. Serotonin, 9-cis retinoic acid, all-trans retinoic acid, flavin mononucleotide in muscles were downregulated after melatonin administration. Moreover, a high free fatty acid (FFA) concentration and a decrease in the adenosine 5′-triphosphate (ATP) concentration in the muscle tissues of the melatonin-treated group were detected as well. These results suggest that the sedative effect of melatonin involves some other metabolic pathways, and the reduced locomotor modulator—serotonin, inhibited fatty acid oxidation and disturbed oxidative phosphorylation are potential physiological mechanisms that result in the inhibitory effect of melatonin on locomotion in sea cucumbers.