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Wang Y, Mei Q, Jiang H, Hollander K, Van den Berghe P, Fernandez J, Gu Y. The Biomechanical Influence of Step Width on Typical Locomotor Activities: A Systematic Review. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2024; 10:83. [PMID: 39068296 PMCID: PMC11283446 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-024-00750-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Step width is a spatial variable in the frontal plane, defined as the mediolateral distance between the heel (forefoot during sprinting) of bilateral feet at initial contact. Variations in step width may impact the lower limb biomechanics. This systematic review aimed to synthesize the published findings to determine the influence of acute changes in step width on locomotion biomechanics and provide implications for injury prevention and enhanced sports performance. METHODS Literature was identified, selected, and appraised in accordance with the methods of a systematic review. Four electronic databases (Web of Science, MEDLINE via PubMed, Scopus, and ScienceDirect) were searched up until May 2023 with the development of inclusion criteria based on the PICO model. Study quality was assessed using the Downs and Black checklist and the measured parameters were summarized. RESULTS Twenty-three articles and 399 participants were included in the systematic review. The average quality score of the 23 studies included was 9.39 (out of 14). Step width changed the kinematics and kinetics in the sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes of the lower limb, such as peak rearfoot eversion angle and moment, peak hip adduction angle and moment, knee flexion moment, peak knee internal rotation angle, as well as knee external rotation moment. Alteration of step width has the potential to change the stability and posture during locomotion, and evidence exists for the immediate biomechanical effects of variations in step width to alter proximal kinematics and cues to impact loading variables. CONCLUSION Short-term changes in step width during walking, running, and sprinting influenced multiple lower extremity biomechanics. Narrower step width may result in poor balance and higher impact loading on the lower extremities during walking and running and may limit an athlete's sprint performance. Increasing step width may be beneficial for injury rehabilitation, i.e., for patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome, iliotibial band syndrome or tibial bone stress injury. Wider steps increase the supporting base and typically enhance balance control, which in turn could reduce the risks of falling during daily activities. Altering the step width is thus proposed as a simple and non-invasive treatment method in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Wang
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, No. 818, Fenghua Rd, Jiangbei District, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Research Academy of Grand Health, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Qichang Mei
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, No. 818, Fenghua Rd, Jiangbei District, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China.
- Research Academy of Grand Health, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China.
- Auckland Bioengineering Institute, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Hanhui Jiang
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, No. 818, Fenghua Rd, Jiangbei District, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Research Academy of Grand Health, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Karsten Hollander
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, MSH Medical School Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Justin Fernandez
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, No. 818, Fenghua Rd, Jiangbei District, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Research Academy of Grand Health, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
- Auckland Bioengineering Institute, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Engineering Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Yaodong Gu
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, No. 818, Fenghua Rd, Jiangbei District, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China.
- Research Academy of Grand Health, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China.
- Auckland Bioengineering Institute, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Liu C, Downey RJ, Salminen JS, Rojas SA, Richer N, Pliner EM, Hwang J, Cruz-Almeida Y, Manini TM, Hass CJ, Seidler RD, Clark DJ, Ferris DP. Electrical Brain Activity during Human Walking with Parametric Variations in Terrain Unevenness and Walking Speed. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.31.551289. [PMID: 37577540 PMCID: PMC10418077 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.31.551289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Mobile brain imaging with high-density electroencephalography (EEG) can provide insight into the cortical processes involved in complex human walking tasks. While uneven terrain is common in the natural environment and poses challenges to human balance control, there is limited understanding of the supraspinal processes involved with traversing uneven terrain. The primary objective of this study was to quantify electrocortical activity related to parametric variations in terrain unevenness for neurotypical young adults. We used high-density EEG to measure brain activity when thirty-two young adults walked on a novel custom-made uneven terrain treadmill surface with four levels of difficulty at a walking speed tailored to each participant. We identified multiple brain regions associated with uneven terrain walking. Alpha (8 - 13 Hz) and beta (13 - 30 Hz) spectral power decreased in the sensorimotor and posterior parietal areas with increasing terrain unevenness while theta (4 - 8 Hz) power increased in the mid/posterior cingulate area with terrain unevenness. We also found that within stride spectral power fluctuations increased with terrain unevenness. Our secondary goal was to investigate the effect of parametric changes in walking speed (0.25 m/s, 0.5m/s, 0.75 m/s, 1.0 m/s) to differentiate the effects of walking speed from uneven terrain. Our results revealed that electrocortical activities only changed substantially with speed within the sensorimotor area but not in other brain areas. Together, these results indicate there are distinct cortical processes contributing to the control of walking over uneven terrain versus modulation of walking speed on smooth, flat terrain. Our findings increase our understanding of cortical involvement in an ecologically valid walking task and could serve as a benchmark for identifying deficits in cortical dynamics that occur in people with mobility deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Ryan J. Downey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Jacob S. Salminen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Sofia Arvelo Rojas
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Natalie Richer
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Erika M. Pliner
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Jungyun Hwang
- Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Yenisel Cruz-Almeida
- Department of Community Dentistry and Behavioral Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Pain Research and Intervention Center of Excellence (PRICE), University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Todd M. Manini
- Department of Health Outcomes and Biomedical Informatics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Chris J. Hass
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Rachael D. Seidler
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - David J. Clark
- Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Brain Rehabilitation Research Center, Malcom Randall VA Medical Center, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Daniel P. Ferris
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
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Dhawale N, Venkadesan M. How human runners regulate footsteps on uneven terrain. eLife 2023; 12:67177. [PMID: 36810138 PMCID: PMC10030110 DOI: 10.7554/elife.67177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Running stably on uneven natural terrain takes skillful control and was critical for human evolution. Even as runners circumnavigate hazardous obstacles such as steep drops, they must contend with uneven ground that is gentler but still destabilizing. We do not know how footsteps are guided based on the uneven topography of the ground and how those choices influence stability. Therefore, we studied human runners on trail-like undulating uneven terrain and measured their energetics, kinematics, ground forces, and stepping patterns. We find that runners do not selectively step on more level ground areas. Instead, the body's mechanical response, mediated by the control of leg compliance, helps maintain stability without requiring precise regulation of footsteps. Furthermore, their overall kinematics and energy consumption on uneven terrain showed little change from flat ground. These findings may explain how runners remain stable on natural terrain while devoting attention to tasks besides guiding footsteps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nihav Dhawale
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, United States
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India
| | - Madhusudhan Venkadesan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Yale University, New Haven, United States
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Downey RJ, Richer N, Gupta R, Liu C, Pliner EM, Roy A, Hwang J, Clark DJ, Hass CJ, Manini TM, Seidler RD, Ferris DP. Uneven terrain treadmill walking in younger and older adults. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0278646. [PMID: 36534645 PMCID: PMC9762558 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We developed a method for altering terrain unevenness on a treadmill to study gait kinematics. Terrain consisted of rigid polyurethane disks (12.7 cm diameter, 1.3-3.8 cm tall) which attached to the treadmill belt using hook-and-loop fasteners. Here, we tested four terrain unevenness conditions: Flat, Low, Medium, and High. The main objective was to test the hypothesis that increasing the unevenness of the terrain would result in greater gait kinematic variability. Seventeen younger adults (age 20-40 years), 25 higher-functioning older adults (age 65+ years), and 29 lower-functioning older adults (age 65+ years, Short Physical Performance Battery score < 10) participated. We customized the treadmill speed to each participant's walking ability, keeping the speed constant across all four terrain conditions. Participants completed two 3-minute walking trials per condition. Using an inertial measurement unit placed over the sacrum and pressure sensors in the shoes, we calculated the stride-to-stride variability in step duration and sacral excursion (coefficient of variation; standard deviation expressed as percentage of the mean). Participants also self-reported their perceived stability for each condition. Terrain was a significant predictor of step duration variability, which roughly doubled from Flat to High terrain for all participant groups: younger adults (Flat 4.0%, High 8.2%), higher-functioning older adults (Flat 5.0%, High 8.9%), lower-functioning older adults (Flat 7.0%, High 14.1%). Similarly, all groups exhibited significant increases in sacral excursion variability for the Medium and High uneven terrain conditions, compared to Flat. Participants were also significantly more likely to report feeling less stable walking over all three uneven terrain conditions compared to Flat. These findings support the hypothesis that altering terrain unevenness on a treadmill will increase gait kinematic variability and reduce perceived stability in younger and older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan J. Downey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Natalie Richer
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Rohan Gupta
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Chang Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Erika M. Pliner
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Arkaprava Roy
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Jungyun Hwang
- Department of Aging and Geriatric Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - David J. Clark
- Department of Aging and Geriatric Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
- Brain Rehabilitation Research Center, Malcom Randall VA Medical Center, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Chris J. Hass
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Todd M. Manini
- Department of Aging and Geriatric Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Rachael D. Seidler
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Daniel P. Ferris
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
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Holowka NB, Kraft TS, Wallace IJ, Gurven M, Venkataraman VV. Forest terrains influence walking kinematics among indigenous Tsimane of the Bolivian Amazon. EVOLUTIONARY HUMAN SCIENCES 2022; 4:e19. [PMID: 37588935 PMCID: PMC10426037 DOI: 10.1017/ehs.2022.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Laboratory-based studies indicate that a major evolutionary advantage of bipedalism is enabling humans to walk with relatively low energy expenditure. However, such studies typically record subjects walking on even surfaces or treadmills that do not represent the irregular terrains our species encounters in natural environments. To date, few studies have quantified walking kinematics on natural terrains. Here we used high-speed video to record marker-based kinematics of 21 individuals from a Tsimane forager-horticulturalist community in the Bolivian Amazon walking on three different terrains: a dirt field, a forest trail and an unbroken forest transect. Compared with the field, in the unbroken forest participants contacted the ground with more protracted legs and flatter foot postures, had more inclined trunks, more flexed hips and knees, and raised their feet higher during leg swing. In contrast, kinematics were generally similar between trail and field walking. These results provide preliminary support for the idea that irregular natural surfaces like those in forests cause humans to alter their walking kinematics, such that travel in these environments could be more energetically expensive than would be assumed from laboratory-based data. These findings have important implications for the evolutionary energetics of human foraging in environments with challenging terrains.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas S. Kraft
- Department of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
- Department of Anthropology, University of California-Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Ian J. Wallace
- Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Michael Gurven
- Department of Anthropology, University of California-Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
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Antonellis P, Frederick CM, Gonabadi AM, Malcolm P. Modular footwear that partially offsets downhill or uphill grades minimizes the metabolic cost of human walking. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:191527. [PMID: 32257319 PMCID: PMC7062060 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.191527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Walking on different grades becomes challenging on energetic and muscular levels compared to level walking. While it is not possible to eliminate the cost of raising or lowering the centre of mass (COM), it could be possible to minimize the cost of distal joints with shoes that offset downhill or uphill grades. We investigated the effects of shoe outsole geometry in 10 participants walking at 1 m s-1 on downhill, level and uphill grades. Level shoes minimized metabolic rate during level walking (P second-order effect < 0.001). However, shoes that entirely offset the (overall) treadmill grade did not minimize the metabolic rate of walking on grades: shoes with a +3° (upward) inclination minimized metabolic rate during downhill walking on a -6° grade, and shoes with a -3° (downward) inclination minimized metabolic rate during uphill walking on a +6° grade (P interaction effect = 0.023). Shoe inclination influenced (distal) ankle joint parameters, including soleus muscle activity, ankle moment and work rate, whereas treadmill grade influenced (whole-body) ground reaction force and COM work rate as well as (distal) ankle joint parameters including tibialis anterior and plantarflexor muscle activity, ankle moment and work rate. Similar modular footwear could be used to minimize joint loads or assist with walking on rolling terrain.
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Changes in human walking dynamics induced by uneven terrain are reduced with ongoing exposure, but a higher variability persists. Sci Rep 2019; 9:17664. [PMID: 31776376 PMCID: PMC6881352 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-54050-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
During walking, uneven terrain alters the action of the ground reaction force from stride to stride. The extent to which such environmental inconsistencies are withstood may be revealed by the regulation of whole-body angular momentum (L) during walking. L quantifies the balance of momenta of the body segments (thigh, trunk, etc.) about their combined center of mass, and remains close to zero during level walking. A failure to constrain L has been linked to falls. The aim of this study was to explore the ability of young adults to orchestrate their movement on uneven terrain, illustrated by the range of L (LR) and its variability (vLR). In eleven male adults, we observed significant increases in sagittal plane LR, and vLR in all three planes of motion during walking on an uneven in comparison to a flat surface. No reductions in these measures were observed within a 12-minute familiarisation period, suggesting that unimpaired adults either are unable to, or do not need to eliminate the effects of uneven terrain. Transverse plane LR, in contrast, was lower on immediate exposure, and then increased, pointing to the development of a less restrictive movement pattern, and would support the latter hypothesis.
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