VEGF-A/VEGFR-2 signaling plays an important role for the motility of pancreas cancer cells

Recent advances in drug delivery and targeting for the treatment of pancreatic cancer

Despite significant treatment efforts, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), the deadliest solid tumor, is still incurable in the preclinical stages due to multifacet stroma, dense desmoplasia, and immune regression. Additionally, tumor heterogeneity and metabolic changes are linked to low grade clinical translational outcomes, which has prompted the investigation of the mechanisms underlying chemoresistance and the creation of effective treatment approaches by selectively targeting genetic pathways. Since targeting upstream molecules in first-line oncogenic signaling pathways typically has little clinical impact, downstream signaling pathways have instead been targeted in both preclinical and clinical studies. In this review, we discuss how the complexity of various tumor microenvironment (TME) components and the oncogenic signaling pathways that they are connected to actively contribute to the development and spread of PDAC, as well as the ways that recent therapeutic approaches have been targeted to restore it. We also illustrate how many endogenous stimuli-responsive linker-based nanocarriers have recently been developed for the specific targeting of distinct oncogenes and their downstream signaling cascades as well as their ongoing clinical trials. We also discuss the present challenges, prospects, and difficulties in the development of first-line oncogene-targeting medicines for the treatment of pancreatic cancer patients.

1,2,4-Triazole-Tethered Indolinones as New Cancer-Fighting Small Molecules Targeting VEGFR-2: Synthesis, Biological Evaluations and Molecular Docking

Targeting the VEGFR-2 signaling pathway is an inveterate approach toward combating pancreatic and hepatocellular cancers. Based on Sunitinib, the FDA-approved VEGFR-2 inhibitor, novel indolin-2-one-triazole hybrids were designed and synthesized as anti-hepatocellular and anti-pancreatic cancer agents with VEGFR-2 inhibitory activity. All the targeted compounds were assessed for their anti-cancer activity, revealing IC50 values extending from 0.17 to 4.29 µM for PANC1 and 0.58 to 4.49 µM for HepG2 cell lines. An extensive SAR study was conducted to explore the effect of different substituents along with N-alkylation. The potent anti-cancer analogs 11d, 11e, 11g, 11k and 14c were evaluated for their VEGFR-2 inhibitory actions, where their IC50 values ranged from 16.3 to 119.6 nM compared to Sorafenib, which revealed an IC50 of 29.7 nM, having compound 11d as the most active analog. An in silico ADME study was performed to confirm the drug-likeness of the synthesized compounds. Finally, molecular docking simulation was conducted for the most potent VEGFR-2 inhibitor (11d), demonstrating the strong binding with the vital amino acid residues of the VEGFR-2 ATP binding site.

Phase II randomised, double-blind study of mFOLFIRINOX plus ramucirumab versus mFOLFIRINOX plus placebo in advanced pancreatic cancer patients (HCRN GI14-198)

BACKGROUND

Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR)-mediated signalling contributes to andgiogenesis and therapy resistance in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Ramucirumab (RAM) is a VEGFR2 monoclonal antibody. We conducted a randomised phase II trial to compare progression-free survival (PFS) between mFOLFIRINOX with or without RAM in first line therapy of metastatic PDAC.

METHODS

This phase II randomised, multi-centre, placebo controlled, double-blinded, trial randomly assigned to recurrent/metastatic PDAC patients to either mFOLFIRINOX/RAM (Arm A) or mFOLFIRINOX/placebo (Arm B). The primary endpoint is PFS at 9 months, and the secondary endpoints include overall survival (OS), response rate and toxicity evaluation.

RESULTS

A total of 86 subjects enrolled, 82 eligible (42 in Arm A versus 40 in Arm B). The mean age was comparable (61.7 versus 63.0, respectively). Majority were White (N = 69) and males (N = 43). The median PFS was 5.6 compared to 6.7 months, for Arm A and B, respectively. At 9 months, the PFS rates were 25.1% and 35.0% for Arms A and B, respectively (p = 0.322). The median OS in Arm A was 10.3 compared to 9.7 months for Arm B (p = 0.094). The disease response rate for Arm A was 17.7% compared to Arm B of 22.6%. FOLFIRINOX/RAM combination was well tolerated.

CONCLUSIONS

The addition of RAM to FOLFIRINOX did not significantly impact PFS or OS. The combination was well tolerated (Funded by Eli Lilly; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT02581215).

Design, synthesis and anticancer activities evaluation of novel pyrazole modified catalpol derivatives

Catalpol, a natural product mainly existed in plenty of Chinese traditional medicines, is an iridoid compound with the comprehensive effects on neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, choleretic, hypoglycemic and anticancer. However, there are some disadvantages for catalpol such as a short half-life in vivo, low druggability, stingy binding efficiency to target proteins and so on. It is necessary to make structural modification and optimization which enhance its performance on disease treatments and clinic applications. Pyrazole compounds have been reported to have excellent anticancer activities. Based on the previous research foundation of our research group on iridoids and the anticancer activities of catalpol and pyrazole, a series of pyrazole modified catalpol compounds were synthesized by principle of drug combination for serving as potential cancer inhibitors. These derivatives are characterized by ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR and HRMS. The efficacy of anti-esophageal cancer and anti-pancreatic cancer activities were evaluated by the MTT assay on two esophageal cancer cells Eca-109 and EC-9706, and two pancreatic cancer cells PANC-1, BxPC-3 and normal pancreatic cell line HPDE6-C7, which showed that the compound 3e had strong inhibitory activity against esophageal cancer cells, this providing a theoretical basis for the discovery of catalpol-containing drugs.

Glutamine induces remodeling of tight junctions in Caco-2 colorectal cancer cell

Malignant cells often exhibit significant metabolic alterations, including the utilization of different nutrients to meet energetic and biosynthetic demands. Recent studies have shown that glutamine can support primary colorectal tumor growth and also serve as an alternate energy source during distant metastasis under glucose-limited conditions. However, the overall effects of glutamine on cancer cell physiology are not completely understood. In this study, we investigated how glutamine impacts epithelial integrity in colorectal cancer cells under glucose deprivation. Human colorectal cancer (Caco-2) cells were grown to confluency in transwells and cultured in glucose/pyruvate-free DMEM with various glutamine concentrations (0-50 mM). Cell viability was assessed, and monolayer integrity was examined in terms of transepithelial resistance (TER) and paracellular permeability. Tight junction (TJ) component proteins were examined by immunofluorescence staining and Western blotting. A dose-dependent decrease in TER was observed in Caco-2 cells, but paracellular permeability was not affected after 24 h incubation with glutamine. At the same time, the TJ proteins, zonula occludens (ZO)-1 and Claudin-1, showed lateral undulations and punctate staining patterns accompanied by enlargement of cellular and nuclear sizes. Furthermore, decreased protein levels of ZO-1, but not claudin-1, were found in detergent-insoluble cellular fractions. Notably, the decreased TER and alterations in TJ structure were not associated with cell viability changes. Moreover, the addition of glutamate, which is produced by the first step of glutamine catabolism, had no impact on TER. Our results suggested that the enteral glutamine may play an important role in the regulation of TJ dynamics in colorectal cancer cells.

Laminarin Attenuates ROS-Mediated Cell Migration and Invasiveness through Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Pancreatic Cancer Cells

Background: Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a notoriously aggressive type of cancer with a high metastasis rate. It is conventionally treated by surgical resection and neoadjuvant chemotherapy. However, continuous chemotherapy leads to relapse in most PDAC patients due to chemical resistance. Therefore, novel anticancer agents need to be identified and developed. The antitumor activities of laminarin extracted from brown algae against hepatocarcinoma, lung, and colon cancer have been established. However, its effects on pancreatic cancer have remained obscure. Purpose: Our study identified the anticancer effects of laminarin on pancreatic cancer cells and tried to explain its intracellular mechanisms. Methods: We assessed the cell viability of PANC-1 and MIA PaCa-2 cells using MTT assay. Hanging drop method was used for the spheroid formation. Flow cytometry was conducted to evaluate the several intracellular alterations including apoptosis, ROS production, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and calcium concentration induced by laminarin. An invasion test was performed to assess the inhibitory effect of laminarin on cell migration and the invasive genes were evaluated by RT-qPCR. Signaling pathway related with anticancer effects of laminarin was analyzed by western blot. Results: We report that inhibiting laminarin increased the proliferation and viability of the representative pancreatic cancer cell lines, MIA PaCa-2 and PANC-1. Laminarin triggered apoptosis and mitochondrial impairment as evidenced by depolarized mitochondrial membranes, disrupted calcium, and suppressed cell migration caused by reactive oxygen species production and related intracellular signaling pathways. Moreover, laminarin showed synergistic effects when combined with 5-FU, a standard anticancer agent for PDAC. Conclusion: The present study is the first to report that laminarin exerts anticancer effect through ROS production in pancreatic cancer cells. Laminarin shows potential to serve as a new anticancer agent for treating PDAC.

FN1 encoding fibronectin as a pivotal signaling gene for therapeutic intervention against pancreatic cancer

The delayed diagnosis of pancreatic cancer has resulted in rising mortality rate and low survival rate that can be circumvented using potent theranostics biomarkers. The treatment gets complicated with delayed detection resulting in lowered 5-year relative survival rate. In our present study, we employed systems biology approach to identify central genes that play crucial roles in tumor progression. Pancreatic cancer genes collected from various databases were used to construct a statistically significant interactome with 812 genes that was further analysed thoroughly using topological parameters and functional enrichment analysis. The significant genes in the network were then identified based on the maximum degree parameter. The overall survival analysis indicated through hazard ratio [HR] and gene expression [log Fold Change] across pancreatic adenocarcinoma revealed the critical role of FN1 [HR 1.4; log2(FC) 5.748], FGA [HR 0.78; log2(FC) 1.639] FGG [HR 0.9; log2(FC) 1.597], C3 [HR 1.1; log2(FC) 2.637], and QSOX1 [HR 1.4; log2(FC) 2.371]. The functional significance of the identified hub genes signified the enrichment of integrin cell surface interactions and proteoglycan syndecan-mediated cell signaling. The differential expression, low overall survival and functional significance of FN1 gene implied its possible role in controlling metastasis in pancreatic cancer. Furthermore, alternate splice variants of FN1 gene showed 10 protein coding transcripts with conserved cell attachment site and functional domains indicating the variants' potential role in pancreatic cancer. The strong association of the identified hub-genes can be better directed to design potential theranostics biomarkers for metastasized pancreatic tumor.

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptors [VEGFR] as Target in Breast Cancer Treatment: Current Status in Preclinical and Clinical Studies and Future Directions

Breast cancer [BC] is one of the most common cancers among women, one of the leading causes of a considerable number of cancer-related death globally. Among all procedures leading to the formation of breast tumors, angiogenesis has an important role in cancer progression and outcomes. Therefore, various anti-angiogenic strategies have developed so far to enhance treatment's efficacy in different types of BC. Vascular endothelial growth factors [VEGFs] and their receptors are regarded as the most well-known regulators of neovascularization. VEGF binding to vascular endothelial growth factor receptors [VEGFRs] provides cell proliferation and vascular tissue formation by the subsequent tyrosine kinase pathway. VEGF/VEGFR axis displays an attractive target for anti-angiogenesis and anti-cancer drug design. This review aims to describe the existing literature regarding VEGFR inhibitors, focusing on BC treatment reported in the last two decades.

DNA Methylation Mediates EMT Gene Expression in Human Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Cell Lines

Due to abundant stroma and extracellular matrix, accompanied by lack of vascularization, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is characterized by severe hypoxia. Epigenetic regulation is likely one of the mechanisms driving hypoxia-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), responsible for PDAC aggressiveness and dismal prognosis. To verify the role of DNA methylation in this process, we assessed gene expression and DNA methylation changes in four PDAC cell lines. BxPC-3, MIA PaCa-2, PANC-1, and SU.86.86 cells were exposed to conditioned media containing cytokines and inflammatory molecules in normoxic and hypoxic (1% O2) conditions for 2 and 6 days. Cancer Inflammation and Immunity Crosstalk and Human Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition RT² Profiler PCR Arrays were used to identify top deregulated inflammatory and EMT-related genes. Their mRNA expression and DNA methylation were quantified by qRT-PCR and pyrosequencing. BxPC-3 and SU.86.86 cell lines were the most sensitive to hypoxia and inflammation. Although the methylation of gene promoters correlated with gene expression negatively, it was not significantly influenced by experimental conditions. However, DNA methyltransferase inhibitor decitabine efficiently decreased DNA methylation up to 53% and reactivated all silenced genes. These results confirm the role of DNA methylation in EMT-related gene regulation and uncover possible new targets involved in PDAC progression.

High expression of tight junction protein 1 as a predictive biomarker for bladder cancer grade and staging

Tight junction proteins 1-3 (TJP1-3) are components of tight junctions that can link transmembrane proteins to the actin cytoskeleton, and their incidence directly correlates to metastasis. However, the role of the TJP family in bladder cancer has not been adequately evaluated. In this study, we evaluated the genetic changes, mRNA and protein expressions of the target genes of the TJP family in bladder cancer patients using online database and immunohistochemistry, respectively. We found that TJP1 was amplified in bladder cancer tissue and that the protein expression levels were significantly associated with age (p = 0.03), grade (p = 0.007), and stage (p = 0.011). We also examined the correlation between TJP1 and other high-frequency mutation genes using TIMER. TJP1 mRNA levels were positively correlated with TTN and RYR3 mRNA levels in bladder cancer tissue. Taken together, TJP1 expression is associated with poor clinical outcomes in patients with bladder cancer and can be a useful predictive biomarker for bladder cancer staging.

Synergistic Analysis of Circulating Tumor Cells Reveals Prognostic Signatures in Pilot Study of Treatment-Naïve Metastatic Pancreatic Cancer Patients

Simple Summary

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most deadly cancer types because it usually is not diagnosed until the cancer has spread throughout the body. In this study, we isolate cancer cells found in the blood of pancreatic cancer patients called circulating tumor cells (CTCs) to study their mutation and gene expression profiles. Comparing patients with better and worse survival duration revealed signatures found in these cancer cells. Characterizing these signatures may help improve patient care by using alternative treatment options.

Abstract

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma is typically diagnosed at late stages and has one of the lowest five-year survival rates of all malignancies. In this pilot study, we identify signatures related to survival and treatment response found in circulating tumor cells (CTCs). Patients with poor survival had increased mutant KRAS expression and deregulation of connected pathways such as PI3K-AKT and MAPK signaling. Further, in a subset of these patients, expression patterns of gemcitabine resistance mechanisms were observed, even prior to initiating treatment. This work highlights the need for identifying patients with these resistance profiles and designing treatment regimens to circumvent these mechanisms.

VEGFa/VEGFR2 autocrine and paracrine signaling promotes cervical carcinogenesis via β-catenin and snail

VEGF secretion into the tumor microenvironment by cancer cells regulates several oncogenic signaling pathways and cancer-regulated angiogenesis. VEGFR receptors are exclusively present on endothelial cells to maintain their biological homeostasis. The acquisition of unique VEGFR2 receptor and VEGFa in cervical cancer (CC) cells reflects VEGFa/VEGFR2 autocrine machinery. Given the critical role of VEGFR2 in endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis, we explored its function in CC epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and stemness. Here we report that VEGFR2 regulates cancer-induced angiogenesis and EMT-linked stemness in CC cells via AKT/GSK3β/β-catenin and Snail pathway. Receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor (RTKi) of VEGFR, Pazopanib (PAZ), shows potential anti-VEGFR2 activity and inhibits VEGFa induced metastatic events such as migration, invasion, and anoikis resistance in CC cells. Similarly, PAZ also attenuates cancer-regulated angiogenesis by inhibiting VE-cadherin internalization in endothelial cells followed by inhibition of endothelial cell migration. Selective depletion of VEGFR2 ligand VEGFa in CC cells also attenuates EMT, metastatic events, and inhibition of cancer-induced angiogenesis. In addition, blocking of VEGFR2 signaling in CC cells via PAZ or shRNA alters the formation of cervical tumorspheres (TS) and their successive generation. Collectively, inhibition of functional VEGFa/VEGFR2 autocrine and paracrine axis ceases the cancer-promoting events in cervical cancer cells. Based on the finding in this study, this oncogenic pathways could be used as a potential therapeutic target in a clinical setting with conventional radio-chemotherapy to achieve synergistic killing of CC cells.

Anticancer Effect of Heparin-Taurocholate Conjugate on Orthotopically Induced Exocrine and Endocrine Pancreatic Cancer

Simple Summary

Pancreatic cancer has a less than 9% 5-year survival rate among patients because it is very difficult to detect and diagnose early. Combinatorial chemotherapy with surgery or radiotherapy is a potential remedy to treat pancreatic cancer. However, these strategies still have side effects such as hair loss, skin soreness and fatigue. To overcome these side effects, angiogenesis inhibitors such as sunitinib are used to deliver targeted blood vessels around tumor tissues, including pancreatic cancer tumors. It is still controversial whether antiangiogenesis therapy is sufficient to treat pancreatic cancer. So far, many scientists have not been focused on the tumor types of pancreatic cancer when they have developed antipancreatic cancer medication. Here, we used heparin–taurocholate (LHT) as an anticancer drug to treat pancreatic cancer through inhibition of angiogenic growth factors. In this study, we examined the anticancer efficacy of LHT on various types of pancreatic cancer in an orthotopic model.

Abstract

Pancreatic cancers are classified based on where they occur, and are grouped into those derived from exocrine and those derived from neuroendocrine tumors, thereby experiencing different anticancer effects under medication. Therefore, it is necessary to develop anticancer drugs that can inhibit both types. To this end, we developed a heparin–taurocholate conjugate, i.e., LHT, to suppress tumor growth via its antiangiogenic activity. Here, we conducted a study to determine the anticancer efficacy of LHT on pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor (PNET), in an orthotopic animal model. LHT reduced not only proliferation of cancer cells, but also attenuated the production of VEGF through ERK dephosphorylation. LHT effectively reduced the migration, invasion and tube formation of endothelial cells via dephosphorylation of VEGFR, ERK1/2, and FAK protein. Especially, these effects of LHT were much stronger on PNET (RINm cells) than PDAC (PANC1 and MIA PaCa-2 cells). Eventually, LHT reduced ~50% of the tumor weights and tumor volumes of all three cancer cells in the orthotopic model, via antiproliferation of cancer cells and antiangiogenesis of endothelial cells. Interestingly, LHT had a more dominant effect in the PNET-induced tumor model than in PDAC in vivo. Collectively, these findings demonstrated that LHT could be a potential antipancreatic cancer medication, regardless of pancreatic cancer types.

Integrative Network Pharmacology of Moringa oleifera Combined with Gemcitabine against Pancreatic Cancer

Gemcitabine (GEM) is the first-line chemotherapy drug for patients with advanced pancreatic cancer. Moringa oleifera (MO) exhibited various biological activities, including anticancer effects. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of their combination against pancreatic cancer has not yet been explored. This study evaluates the effect of MO and GEM against pancreatic cancer through network pharmacology. TCMSP, TCMID, and PubMed were used to identify and screen MO bioactive compounds. MO and GEM genes were predicted through DGIdb, CTD, and DrugBank. Pancreatic cancer genes were retrieved from OMIM and MalaCards. Protein–protein interaction (PPI) and compound-target-pathway network were established via STRING and Cytoscape. Gene ontology (GO) and pathway enrichment analysis were conducted using DAVID Bioinformatic Tools. Catechin, kaempferol, quercetin, and epicatechin that met the drug screening requirements, and three additional compounds, glucomoringin, glucoraphanin, and moringinine, were identified as bioactive compounds in MO. Catechin was found to be the main hub compound in MO. TP53, AKT1, VEGFA, and CCND1 from PPI network were discovered as hub genes to have biological importance in pancreatic cancer. GO and pathway analysis revealed that MO and GEM combination was mainly associated with cancer, including pancreatic cancer, through regulation of apoptosis. Combination therapy between MO and GEM might provide insight in pancreatic cancer treatment.

Correntropy-Based Hypergraph Regularized NMF for Clustering and Feature Selection on Multi-Cancer Integrated Data

Non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) has become one of the most powerful methods for clustering and feature selection. However, the performance of the traditional NMF method severely degrades when the data contain noises and outliers or the manifold structure of the data is not taken into account. In this article, a novel method called correntropy-based hypergraph regularized NMF (CHNMF) is proposed to solve the above problem. Specifically, we use the correntropy instead of the Euclidean norm in the loss term of CHNMF, which will improve the robustness of the algorithm. And the hypergraph regularization term is also applied to the objective function, which can explore the high-order geometric information in more sample points. Then, the half-quadratic (HQ) optimization technique is adopted to solve the complex optimization problem of CHNMF. Finally, extensive experimental results on multi-cancer integrated data indicate that the proposed CHNMF method is superior to other state-of-the-art methods for clustering and feature selection.

Evaluation of Variances in VEGF-A-D and VEGFR-1-3 Expression in the Ishikawa Endometrial Cancer Cell Line Treated with Salinomycin and Anti-Angiogenic/Lymphangiogenic Effect

BACKGROUND

In cancer, an excessive and uncontrolled process of creating new blood and lymphatic vessels that play a key role in the metastasis process can be observed. The Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF-A,-B,-C,-D) family together with their specific receptors (VEGFR-1,-2,- 3) plays a key role in these processes, therefore, it would be reasonable to determine the correct pattern of their expression.

OBJECTIVES

The study aimed to assess the use of salinomycin as an anti-angiogenic and anti-lymphangiogenic drug during endometrial cancer by examining changes in the expression pattern of VEGF-A, VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3 depending on the treatment period of the Ishikawa endometrial cancer cells with salinomycin in comparison to the control culture.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To determine how influential salinomycin was on the expression of both mRNAs, 1 μM of the drug was added to the cell culture and then it was cultured all together for 12, 24 and 48 hour periods. The cells that made up the control culture were not treated with salinomycin. To determine the changes in the expression profile of the selected genes, we used the microarray, techniques: RTqPCR and ELISA (p<0.05).

RESULTS

For all isoforms of VEGF-A-D as well as receptors of VEGFR-1-3, a decrease in expression under the influence of salinomycin was noted. For VEGF-A and VEGFR-1, the difference in the expression between the culture treated with salinomycin in comparison to the control was statistically significant (p=0.0004). In turn, for VEGF-B, the difference between the culture exposed for 24 hours in comparison to the control (p=0.00000) as well as the comparison between H48 vs. C (p=0.00000) was statistically significant. In reference to VEGF-C, VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3, the statistical analysis showed the significant difference in expression between the culture incubated with the drug for 12, 24 and 48 hours in comparison to the control as well as between the selected times. For all of these comparisons, p=0.00000 was utilized.

CONCLUSION

Salinomycin changes the expression pattern of VEGF-A, VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2, and VEGFR-3 in endometrial cancer cells. The obtained results suggest that salinomycin might exert the effect via VEGF signaling pathways.

Targeting Growth Factor Signaling Pathways in Pancreatic Cancer: Towards Inhibiting Chemoresistance

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most deadly cancers, ranking amongst the top leading cause of cancer related deaths in developed countries. Features such as dense stroma microenvironment, abnormal signaling pathways, and genetic heterogeneity of the tumors contribute to its chemoresistant characteristics. Amongst these features, growth factors have been observed to play crucial roles in cancer cell survival, progression, and chemoresistance. Here we review the role of the individual growth factors in pancreatic cancer chemoresistance. Importantly, the interplay between the tumor microenvironment and chemoresistance is explored in the context of pivotal role played by growth factors. We further describe current and future potential therapeutic targeting of these factors.

Antibody therapy in pancreatic cancer: mAb-ye we're onto something?

Pancreatic cancer remains an extremely deadly disease, with little improvement seen in treatment or outcomes over the last 40 years. Targeted monoclonal antibody therapy is one area that has been explored in attempts to tackle this disease. This review examines antibodies that have undergone clinical evaluation in pancreatic cancer. These antibodies target a wide variety of molecules, including tumour cell surface, stromal, immune and embryonic pathway targets. We discuss the therapeutic utility of these therapies both as monotherapeutics and in combination with other treatments such as chemotherapy. While antibody therapy for pancreatic cancer has yet to yield significant success, lessons learned from research thus far highlights future directions that may help overcome observed hurdles to yield clinically efficacious results.

PALLD mutation in a European family conveys a stromal predisposition for familial pancreatic cancer

BACKGROUNDPancreatic cancer is one of the deadliest cancers, with low long-term survival rates. Despite recent advances in treatment, it is important to identify and screen high-risk individuals for cancer prevention. Familial pancreatic cancer (FPC) accounts for 4%-10% of pancreatic cancers. Several germline mutations are related to an increased risk and might offer screening and therapy options. In this study, we aimed to identity of a susceptibility gene in a family with FPC.METHODSWhole exome sequencing and PCR confirmation was performed on the surgical specimen and peripheral blood of an index patient and her sister in a family with high incidence of pancreatic cancer, to identify somatic and germline mutations associated with familial pancreatic cancer. Compartment-specific gene expression data and immunohistochemistry were also queried.RESULTSThe identical germline mutation of the PALLD gene (NM_001166108.1:c.G154A:p.D52N) was detected in the index patient with pancreatic cancer and the tumor tissue of her sister. Whole genome sequencing showed similar somatic mutation patterns between the 2 sisters. Apart from the PALLD mutation, commonly mutated genes that characterize pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma were found in both tumor samples. However, the 2 patients harbored different somatic KRAS mutations (G12D and G12V). Healthy siblings did not have the PALLD mutation, indicating a disease-specific impact. Compartment-specific gene expression data and IHC showed expression in cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs).CONCLUSIONWe identified a germline mutation of the palladin (PALLD) gene in 2 siblings in Europe, affected by familial pancreatic cancer, with a significant overexpression in CAFs, suggesting that stromal palladin could play a role in the development, maintenance, and/or progression of pancreatic cancer.FUNDINGDFG SFB 1321.

Macrophages in pancreatic cancer: An immunometabolic perspective

As one of the most fatal gastrointestinal cancers, pancreatic cancer (PC) has a long-term survival rate that has shown limited improvement during recent decades and remains dismal. The poor prognosis is attributed to challenges in early detection, low opportunity for radical resection and resistance to chemotherapy and radiation. Macrophages are one of the most abundant infiltrating immune cells in PC stroma, and they can crosstalk with cancer cells, adipocytes and other stromal cells to modulate metabolism, inflammation and immune status, create an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), and ultimately facilitate tumor initiation and progression. In this review, we summarize recent advances in our understanding of macrophage origin, distribution and polarization, as well as provide a thorough review of the role macrophages in PC carcinogenesis and development, as well as the underlying molecular mechanism. Additionally, we investigated macrophage targets in preclinical and clinical trials to evaluate their potential therapeutic value in PC.

Long non‑coding RNA NEAT1 promotes ovarian cancer cell invasion and migration by interacting with miR‑1321 and regulating tight junction protein 3 expression

Previous studies have reported that long non‑coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have a significant role in the metastasis of tumors, including ovarian cancer (OC). The aim of the present study was to demonstrate the function and working mechanism of lncRNA nuclear enriched abundant transcript 1 (NEAT1) in OC. The expressions of NEAT1 in OC were measured by reverse transcription‑quantitativePCR (RT‑qPCR). The effects of NEAT1 on cell proliferation, invasion, migration and epithelial‑mesenchymal transition (EMT) were detected by Cell Counting Kit‑8, transwell and wound healing assays, and western blotting. Dual‑luciferase reporter assays were performed to confirm the correlated between NEAT and miR‑1321, miR‑1321 and TJP3. The effect of NEAT1 on miR‑1321 and TJP3 was confirmed by RT‑qPCR and western blotting. Elevated expression of NEAT1 was observed in OC cell lines, and NEAT1 expression was found to be positively related to the expression of tight junction protein 3 (TJP3), which is important in cancer development. Moreover, the present results indicated that NEAT1 and TJP3 expression levels were negatively correlated with microRNA (miR)‑1321 expression in OC. Knockdown of NEAT1 attenuated the migration and invasion of OC cells, as well as increased miR‑1321 expression and in turn led to the reduction of TJP3. Thus, the present study demonstrated that NEAT1 regulates TJP3 expression by sponging miR‑1321 and enhances the epithelial‑mesenchymal transition, invasion and migration of OC cells. Overall, the present study identified the function and mechanism of NEAT1 in OC, suggesting that NEAT1 may be a promising therapeutic target for OC metastasis.

Relationship between apical junction proteins, gene expression and cancer

The apical junctional complex (AJC) is a cell-cell adhesion system present at the upper portion of the lateral membrane of epithelial cells integrated by the tight junction (TJ) and the adherens junction (AJ). This complex is crucial to initiate and stabilize cell-cell adhesion, to regulate the paracellular transit of ions and molecules and to maintain cell polarity. Moreover, we now consider the AJC as a hub of signal transduction that regulates cell-cell adhesion, gene transcription and cell proliferation and differentiation. The molecular components of the AJC are multiple and diverse and depending on the cellular context some of the proteins in this complex act as tumor suppressors or as promoters of cell transformation, migration and metastasis outgrowth. Here, we describe these new roles played by TJ and AJ proteins and their potential use in cancer diagnostics and as targets for therapeutic intervention.

Tim-3 promotes cell aggressiveness and paclitaxel resistance through NF-κB/STAT3 signalling pathway in breast cancer cells

Objective

Although T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing molecule-3 (Tim-3) has been recognized as a promising target for cancer immunotherapy, its exact role in breast cancer has not been fully elucidated.

Methods

Tim-3 gene expression in breast cancer and its prognostic significance were analyzed. Associated mechanisms were then explored in vitro by establishing Tim-3-overexpressing breast cancer cells.

Results

In a pooled analysis of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, Tim-3 gene expression levels were significantly higher (P<0.001) in breast cancer tissue, compared with normal tissues. Tim-3 was a prognosis indicator in breast cancer patients [relapse-free survival (RFS), P=0.004; overall survival (OS), P=0.099]. Tim-3 overexpression in Tim-3^low breast cancer cells promoted aggressiveness of breast cancer cells, as evidenced by enhanced proliferation, migration, invasion, tight junction deterioration and tumor-associated tubal formation. Tim-3 also enhanced cellular resistance to paclitaxel. Furthermore, Tim-3 exerted its function by activating the NF-κB/STAT3 signalling pathway and by regulating gene expression [cyclin D1 (CCND1), C-Myc, matrix metalloproteinase-1(MMP1), TWIST, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) upregulation, concomitant with E-cadherin downregulation). Lastly, Tim-3 downregulated tight junction-associated molecules zona occludens (ZO)-2, ZO-1 and occludin, which may further facilitate tumor progression.

Conclusions

Tim-3 plays an oncogenic role in breast cancer and may represent a potential target for antitumor therapy.

ZO-2 Is a Master Regulator of Gene Expression, Cell Proliferation, Cytoarchitecture, and Cell Size

ZO-2 is a cytoplasmic protein of tight junctions (TJs). Here, we describe ZO-2 involvement in the formation of the apical junctional complex during early development and in TJ biogenesis in epithelial cultured cells. ZO-2 acts as a scaffold for the polymerization of claudins at TJs and plays a unique role in the blood–testis barrier, as well as at TJs of the human liver and the inner ear. ZO-2 movement between the cytoplasm and nucleus is regulated by nuclear localization and exportation signals and post-translation modifications, while ZO-2 arrival at the cell border is triggered by activation of calcium sensing receptors and corresponding downstream signaling. Depending on its location, ZO-2 associates with junctional proteins and the actomyosin cytoskeleton or a variety of nuclear proteins, playing a role as a transcriptional repressor that leads to inhibition of cell proliferation and transformation. ZO-2 regulates cell architecture through modulation of Rho proteins and its absence induces hypertrophy due to inactivation of the Hippo pathway and activation of mTOR and S6K. The interaction of ZO-2 with viral oncoproteins and kinases and its silencing in diverse carcinomas reinforce the view of ZO-2 as a tumor regulator protein.

Hydroxychavicol from Piper betle induces apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and inhibits epithelial-mesenchymal transition in pancreatic cancer cells

Pancreatic cancer is a major cause of cancer-related mortality around the world. Currently, options for diagnosis and treatment are extremely limited, which culminates in a very high mortality rate. Intensive research spanning more than four decades has met several roadblocks in terms of improvement in overall survival. In this study, we have evaluated the effect of Hydroxychavicol (HC), a naturally occurring and abundantly isolatable allylarene from Piper betle leaves on pancreatic cancer cells. Our investigation reveals that HC inhibits proliferation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in pancreatic cancer cells. HC induces DNA damage, as evidenced by γ-H2AX, 53BP1 induction and comet assay, which further results in mitotic catastrophe and apoptosis. The apoptosis induced by HC is JNK pathway-dependent and caspase-mediated. HC also inhibits migration and invasion of pancreatic cancer cells via a generalized repression of genes involved in EMT. A quantitative real time PCR-based array revealed at least 14 different genes to be differentially expressed upon HC treatment in pancreatic cancer cells. These results show significant potential of HC as an anticancer agent against pancreatic cancer.

Tight Junction Proteins and Signaling Pathways in Cancer and Inflammation: A Functional Crosstalk

The ability of epithelial cells to organize through cell–cell adhesion into a functioning epithelium serves the purpose of a tight epithelial protective barrier. Contacts between adjacent cells are made up of tight junctions (TJ), adherens junctions (AJ), and desmosomes with unique cellular functions and a complex molecular composition. These proteins mediate firm mechanical stability, serves as a gatekeeper for the paracellular pathway, and helps in preserving tissue homeostasis. TJ proteins are involved in maintaining cell polarity, in establishing organ-specific apical domains and also in recruiting signaling proteins involved in the regulation of various important cellular functions including proliferation, differentiation, and migration. As a vital component of the epithelial barrier, TJs are under a constant threat from proinflammatory mediators, pathogenic viruses and bacteria, aiding inflammation and the development of disease. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients reveal loss of TJ barrier function, increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines, and immune dysregulation; yet, the relationship between these events is partly understood. Although TJ barrier defects are inadequate to cause experimental IBD, mucosal immune activation is changed in response to augmented epithelial permeability. Thus, the current studies suggest that altered barrier function may predispose or increase disease progression and therapies targeted to specifically restore the barrier function may provide a substitute or supplement to immunologic-based therapies. This review provides a brief introduction about the TJs, AJs, structure and function of TJ proteins. The link between TJ proteins and key signaling pathways in cell proliferation, transformation, and metastasis is discussed thoroughly. We also discuss the compromised intestinal TJ integrity under inflammatory conditions, and the signaling mechanisms involved that bridge inflammation and cancer.

Linc00511 acts as a competing endogenous RNA to regulate VEGFA expression through sponging hsa-miR-29b-3p in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a lethal malignancy. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are important regulators in pathological processes, yet their potential roles in PDAC are poorly understood. Here, we identify a fundamental role for a novel lincRNA, linc00511, in the progression of PDAC. Linc00511 levels in PDAC tissue specimens and cell lines were examined by quantitative real-time PCR. Corresponding adjacent non-neoplastic tissues were used as controls. The function of linc00511 in PDAC cell lines was determined by RNA interference approach in vitro and in vivo. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) was used to characterize linc00511 expression in PDAC cells. Insights of the mechanism of competitive endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs) were obtained from bioinformatic analysis, luciferase assays and RIP assays. The association between the linc00511/hsa-miR29b-3p axis and VEGFA was verified by Western blotting assay. Immunohistochemistry was performed to evaluate the expression of VEGFA in PDAC samples. The aberrant up-regulation of linc00511 was detected in PDAC cell lines and patient specimens compared with controls. An increase in linc00511 expression indicates the adverse clinical pathological characteristics and poor prognosis. Functionally, linc00511 depletion in PDAC cells decreased proliferation, migration, invasion and endothelial tube formation. Mechanistically, linc00511 could up-regulate VEGFA via its competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) activity on hsa-miR-29b-3p. In summary, our results define an important axis controlling proliferation, invasion and tumour angiogenesis in PDAC. Linc00511 is a novel lncRNA that plays a significant regulatory role in the pathogenesis and progression of PDAC. Thus, Linc00511 represents a new prognostic biomarker to predict clinical outcome of PDAC patients after surgery and may serve as a potential therapeutic target for PDAC treatment.

Intracrine VEGF signalling mediates colorectal cancer cell migration and invasion

Background:

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptors (VEGFRs) are key regulators of angiogenesis, affecting endothelial cell survival and function. However, the effect of VEGF-VEGFR signalling on tumour cell function is not well understood. Our previous studies in colorectal cancer (CRC) cells have demonstrated an intracrine VEGF/VEGFR1 signalling mechanism that mediates CRC cell survival and chemo-sensitivity. Since extracellular VEGF signalling regulates migration of endothelial cells and various tumour cells, we attempted to determine whether intracrine VEGF signalling affects CRC cell motility.

Methods:

Migration and invasion of CRC cells, with and without VEGF or VEGFR1 depletion, were assayed using transwell migration chambers. Changes in cell morphology, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers, and markers of cell motility were assessed by immunostaining and western blot.

Results:

Depletion of intracellular VEGF and VEGFR1 in multiple CRC cell lines led to strong inhibition of migration and invasion of CRC cells. Except for Twist, there were no significant differences in markers of EMT between control and VEGF/VEGFR1-depleted CRC cells. However, VEGF/VEGFR1-depleted CRC cells demonstrated a significant reduction in levels of phosphorylated focal adhesion kinase and its upstream regulators pcMET and pEGFR.

Conclusions:

Inhibition of intracrine VEGF signalling strongly inhibits CRC cell migration and invasion by regulating proteins involved in cell motility.

ZO-2, a tight junction protein involved in gene expression, proliferation, apoptosis, and cell size regulation

ZO-2 is a peripheral tight junction protein that belongs to the membrane-associated guanylate kinase protein family. Here, we explain the modular and supramodular organization of ZO-2 that allows it to interact with a wide variety of molecules, including cell-cell adhesion proteins, cytoskeletal components, and nuclear factors. We also describe how ZO proteins evolved through metazoan evolution and analyze the intracellular traffic of ZO-2, as well as the roles played by ZO-2 at the plasma membrane and nucleus that translate into the regulation of proliferation, cell size, and apoptosis. In addition, we focus on the impact of ZO-2 expression on male fertility and on maladies like cancer, cholestasis, and hearing loss.

Obesity-associated digestive cancers: A review of mechanisms and interventions

The prevalence of obesity has steadily increased over the past few decades. Previous studies suggest that obesity is an oncogenic factor and that over 20% of all cancers are obesity-related. Among such cancers, digestive system malignancies (including esophageal adenocarcinomas, colorectal cancers, and cancers of the gastric cardia, liver, and pancreas) are reported most frequently. While the 5-year survival rates of cancers of the breast and prostate are 90%, that rate is only 45% for digestive cancers. In this review, the mechanisms of obesity-associated digestive cancers are discussed, with an emphasis on obesity-related gene mutations, insulin and insulin-like growth factor signaling pathways, chronic inflammation, and altered adipokine levels. Evidence that these factors often function interdependently rather than independently in carcinogenesis is presented. Recommended interventions that may reduce the burden of obesity-associated digestive cancers, such as participation in physical activity, diet modulation, and calorie restriction, are also described.

MicroRNA-20b (miR-20b) Promotes the Proliferation, Migration, Invasion, and Tumorigenicity in Esophageal Cancer Cells via the Regulation of Phosphatase and Tensin Homologue Expression

Increasing evidence has indicated that many microRNAs participate in the development and progression of esophageal cancer and gene expression regulation. MicroRNA-20b (miR-20b) has been reported to be aberrantly expressed in various cancers, but its exact role in esophageal cancer cells remains unclear so far. Therefore, we detected the levels of miR-20b in esophageal tumor tissues and their adjacent normal tissues, and various esophageal cancer cell lines by qRT-PCR. We also explored the effects of miR-20b on cell proliferation, migration, invasion and tumorigenicity of esophageal carcinoma cells through transfection with miR-20b mimics or inhibitor to upregulate or downregulate miR-20b expression in the esophageal cancer cells Eca-109 and KYSE-150, respectively. Additionally, the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of phosphatase and tensin homologue (PTEN) binding with miR-20b was analyzed by dual-luciferase reporter assays. The results indicated that miR-20b expression level in esophageal tumor tissues was significantly increased compared with their neighboring normal tissues, but its expression was inverse with PTEN protein expression. Luciferase assays confirmed that the 3'-UTR of PTEN was a target of miR-20b in esophageal cancer cells. MiR-20b upregulation promoted cell proliferation, migration, invasiveness, and tumor growth, and decreased apoptosis, and reduced PTEN protein level but not mRNA expression in Eca-109 cells. Conversely, downregulation of miR-20b suppressed these processes in KYSE-150 cells, and enhanced PTEN protein expression. These data indicate that miR-20b plays important roles in tumorigenesis of esophageal cancer possibly via regulation of PTEN expression, and it may be a potential therapeutic target for esophageal cancer treatment.

Pancreatic Fibroblasts Stimulate the Motility of Pancreatic Cancer Cells through IGF1/IGF1R Signaling under Hypoxia

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is characterized by its hypovascularity, with an extremely poor prognosis because of its highly invasive nature. PDAC proliferates with abundant stromal cells, suggesting that its invasive activity might be controlled by intercellular interactions between cancer cells and fibroblasts. Using four PDAC cell lines and two pancreas cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), the expression of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1) and IGF1 receptor (IGF1R) was evaluated by RT-PCR, FACScan, western blot, or ELISA. Correlation between IGF1R and the hypoxia marker carbonic anhydrase 9 (CA9) was examined by immunohistochemical staining of 120 pancreatic specimens. The effects of CAFs, IGF1, and IGF1R inhibitors on the motility of cancer cells were examined by wound-healing assay or invasion assay under normoxia (20% O₂) and hypoxia (1% O₂). IGF1R expression was significantly higher in RWP-1, MiaPaCa-2, and OCUP-AT cells than in Panc-1 cells. Hypoxia increased the expression level of IGF1R in RWP-1, MiaPaCa-2, and OCUP-AT cells. CA9 expression was correlated with IGF1R expression in pancreatic specimens. CAFs produced IGF1 under hypoxia, but PDAC cells did not. A conditioned medium from CAFs, which expressed αSMA, stimulated the migration and invasion ability of MiaPaCa-2, RWP-1, and OCUP-AT cells. The motility of all PDAC cells was greater under hypoxia than under normoxia. The motility-stimulating ability of CAFs was decreased by IGF1R inhibitors. These findings might suggest that pancreas CAFs stimulate the invasion activity of PDAC cells through paracrine IGF1/IGF1R signaling, especially under hypoxia. Therefore the targeting of IGF1R signaling might represent a promising therapeutic approach in IGF1R-dependent PDAC.

The green tea polyphenol EGCG potentiates the antiproliferative activity of sunitinib in human cancer cells

Sunitinib is a promising drug for clinical applications; however, the efficacy is reduced by the feedback activation of many signaling cascades. In this study, we investigated the ability of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) to synergize with sunitinib and inhibit insulin receptor substrate (IRS)/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway activation. MCF-7, H460, and H1975 cell lines with PIK3CA mutations were treated with sunitinib or mock treated 0-24 h and then pulsed with 0-50 μM EGCG for another 12 h; cell proliferation and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion were then evaluated. To analyze angiogenesis and VEGF levels in vivo, MCF-7 and H460 xenograft tumors were established. Cell growth signaling cascades were assessed via western blotting in vitro, and tumors were subjected to immunohistochemical analyses to evaluate signaling cascades in vivo. EGCG enhanced the antiproliferation and VEGF secretion-reducing effects of sunitinib in the three tested cell lines. In vivo, EGCG administration at 4 h after sunitinib treatment resulted in greater tumor shrinkage and antiangiogenesis than with sunitinib alone. We further demonstrated that sunitinib exposure induces insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1) upregulation and activation of MAPK signaling. More strikingly, EGCG treatment downregulated IRS-1 levels and suppressed mitogenic effects. In vivo, immunohistochemical analyses demonstrated marked suppression of the IRS/MAPK/p-S6K1 signaling cascade by EGCG, especially after sunitinib treatment. EGCG potentially synergizes with sunitinib due to its ability to suppress the IRS/MAPK signaling induced by sunitinib. We conclude that administration of EGCG after sunitinib treatment represents a promising strategy for the treatment of cancer.

Evodiamine inhibits the migration and invasion of nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells in vitro via repressing MMP-2 expression

PURPOSE

Evodiamine is one of active alkaloids isolated from the traditional Chinese medicine Evodia rutaecarpa Bentham and has various pharmacological properties. In this study, we investigated its effects on the migration, invasion, and associated mechanism in human nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) cells.

METHODS

Cell viability was determined by MTT assay after evodiamine treatment. Wound-healing assay and Boyden transwell system were used to evaluate the inhibitory effects of evodiamine on cell migration and invasion. MMP-2/9 activity was determined using commercial detection kits. The levels of associated proteins involved in the regulation of cell migration and invasion were analyzed by Western blotting.

RESULTS

Evodiamine effectively inhibited the migration and invasion of HONE1 and CNE1 cells, and hardly affected cell proliferation, but significantly suppressed cell adhesion activity in vitro. Additionally, evodiamine treatment significantly decreased mRNA and protein levels of MMP-2 and its activity in the NPC cells, but had little effects on MMP-9 mRNA and protein levels and its activity. Further investigation revealed that evodiamine inhibited the translocation of NF-κB p65, which involves the regulation of MMP-2 expression in cancer invasion. Additionally, evodiamine treatment did not significantly affect the protein levels of JNK, p38, Akt, and their phosphorylated forms and ERK1/2, but strongly attenuated ERK1/2 phosphorylation level, which at least partly accounts for the signal pathway of evodiamine-inhibited migration and invasion of NPC cells.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrate that evodiamine inhibits the migration and invasiveness of NPC cells, and it is probably a potential agent for the treatment of NPC invasion and metastasis.

RGS22 inhibits pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell migration through the G12/13 α subunit/F-actin pathway

Pancreatic cancer is characterized by the potential for local invasion, allowing it to spread during the early developmental stages of the disease. Regulator of G protein signaling 22 (RGS22) localizes to the cytoplasm in pancreatic adenocarcinoma tissue. We overexpressed RGS22 in the human pancreatic cancer cell line BXPC-3. Cells that overexpressed RGS22 had much lower wound-healing rates and greatly reduced migration compared to the control cells. Conversely, cells in which RGS22 expression had been downregulated had higher wound-healing rates and migration than the control cells. These results confirmed that RGS22 expression suppresses pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell migration. Pull-down and coimmunoprecipitation assays revealed that RGS22 had specific interactions with the heterotrimeric G protein G12 α subunit (GNA12) and GNA13 in the cells. We also demonstrated that in the presence of higher RGS22 expression, the cell deformation and F-actin formation caused by lysophosphatidic acid treatment, is delayed. Constitutively active Gα subunits did not accelerate GTP hydrolysis to GDP. We did not investigate the function of RGS22 as a negative regulator of heterotrimeric G12/13 protein signaling. Our data demonstrate that RGS22 acts as a tumor suppressor, repressing human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell migration by coupling to GNA12/13, which in turn leads to inhibition of stress fiber formation.

FH535 inhibited metastasis and growth of pancreatic cancer cells

FH535 is a small-molecule inhibitor of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, which a substantial body of evidence has proven is activated in various cancers, including pancreatic cancer. Activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway plays an important role in tumor progression and metastasis. We investigated the inhibitory effect of FH535 on the metastasis and growth of pancreatic cancer cells. Western blotting and luciferase reporter gene assay indicated that FH535 markedly inhibited Wnt/β-catenin pathway viability in pancreatic cancer cells. In vitro wound healing, invasion, and adhesion assays revealed that FH535 significantly inhibited pancreatic cancer cell metastasis. We also observed the inhibitory effect of FH535 on pancreatic cancer cell growth via the tetrazolium and plate clone formation assays. Microarray analyses suggested that changes in the expression of multiple genes could be involved in the anti-cancer effect of FH535 on pancreatic cancer cells. Our results indicate for the first time that FH535 inhibits pancreatic cancer cell metastasis and growth, providing new insight into therapy of pancreatic cancer.

Dihydromyricetin inhibits migration and invasion of hepatoma cells through regulation of MMP-9 expression

AIM: To investigate the effects of dihydromyricetin (DHM) on the migration and invasion of human hepatic cancer cells.

METHODS: The hepatoma cell lines SK-Hep-1 and MHCC97L were used in this study. The cells were cultured in RPIM-1640 medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum at 37 °C in a humidified 5% CO₂ incubator. DHM was dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide and diluted to various concentrations in medium before applying to cells. MTT assays were performed to measure the viability of the cells after DHM treatment. Wound healing and Boyden transwell assays were used to assess cancer cell motility. The invasive capacity of cancer cells was measured using Matrigel-coated transwell chambers. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2/9 activity was examined by fluorescence analysis. Western blot was carried out to analyze the expression of MMP-2, MMP-9, p-38, JNK, ERK1/2 and PKC-δ proteins. All data were analyzed by Student’s t tests in GraphPad prism 5.0 software and are presented as mean ± SD.

RESULTS: DHM was found to strongly inhibit the migration of the hepatoma cell lines SK-Hep-1 (without DHM, 24 h: 120 ± 8 μmol/L vs 100 μmol/L DHM, 24 h: 65 ± 10 μmol/L, P < 0.001) and MHCC97L (without DHM, 24 h: 126 ± 7 μmol/L vs 100 μmol/L DHM, 24 h: 74 ± 6 μmol/L, P < 0.001). The invasive capacity of the cells was reduced by DHM treatment (SK-Hep-1 cells without DHM, 24 h: 67 ± 4 μmol/L vs 100 μmol/L DHM, 24 h: 9 ± 3 μmol/L, P < 0.001; MHCC97L cells without DHM, 24 h: 117 ± 8 μmol/L vs 100 μmol/L DHM, 24 h: 45 ± 2 μmol/L, P < 0.001). MMP2/9 activity was also inhibited by DHM exposure (SK-Hep-1 cells without DHM, 24 h: 600 ± 26 μmol/L vs 100 μmol/L DHM, 24 h: 100 ± 6 μmol/L, P < 0.001; MHCC97L cells without DHM, 24 h: 504 ± 32 μmol/L vs 100 μmol/L DHM 24 h: 156 ± 10 μmol/L, P < 0.001). Western blot analysis showed that DHM decreased the expression level of MMP-9 but had little effect on MMP-2. Further investigation indicated that DHM markedly reduced the phosphorylation levels of p38, ERK1/2 and JNK in a concentration-dependent manner but had no impact on the total protein levels. In addition, PKC-δ protein, a key protein in the regulation of MMP family protein expression, was up-regulated with DHM treatment.

CONCLUSION: These findings demonstrate that DHM inhibits the migration and invasion of hepatoma cells and may serve as a potential candidate agent for the prevention of HCC metastasis.

Specificity delivers: therapeutic role of tumor antigen-specific antibodies in pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) is among the most deadly cancers with less than 5% of the patients living beyond 5 years post-diagnosis. Lack of early diagnostic biomarkers and resistance to current therapies help explain these disappointing numbers. Thus, more effective and better-targeted therapies are needed quickly. Monoclonal antibodies offer an attractive alternative targeted therapy option for PDA because they are highly specific and potent. However, currently available monoclonal antibody therapies for PDA are still in their infancy with a low success rate and low likelihood of being approved. The challenges faced by these therapies include the following: lack of predictive and response biomarkers, unfavorable safety profiles, expression of targets not restricted to the cancer cells, flawed preclinical model systems, drug resistance, and PDA's complex nature. Additionally, discovery of novel PDA-specific antigen targets, present on the cell surface or in the extracellular matrix, is needed. Predictive and response markers also need to be determined for PDA patient subgroups so that the most appropriate effective therapy can be delivered. Serologic approaches, recombinant antibody-producing technologies, and advances in antibody engineering techniques will help to identify these predictive biomarkers and aid in the development of new therapeutic antibodies. A combinatorial approach simultaneously targeting antigens on the PDA cell, stroma, and immunosuppressive cells should be employed.

Knockdown of VEGFR2 inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis in hemangioma-derived endothelial cells

Angiogenesis is a process of development and growth of new capillary blood vessels from pre-existing vessels. Angiogenic growth factors play important roles in the development and maintenance of some malignancies, of which vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)/VEGFR2 interactions are involved in proliferation, migration, and survival of many cancer cells. The aim of this study was to investigate the function of VEGFR2 in human hemangiomas (HAs). Using immunohistochemistry assay, we examined the expression levels of VEGF, VEGFR2, Ki-67, glucose transporter-1 (Glut-1), phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-AKT) and p-ERK in different phases of human HAs. Positive expression of VEGF, VEGFR2, Ki-67, Glut-1, p-AKT and p-ERK was significantly increased in proliferating phase HAs, while decreased in involuting phase HAs (P=0.001; P=0.003). In contrast, cell apoptotic indexes were decreased in proliferating phase HAs, but increased in involuting phase HAs (P&lt;0.01). Furthermore, we used small hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated VEGFR2 knockdown in primary HA-derived endothelial cells (HemECs) to understand  the  role  of  VEGF/VEGFR2 signaling. Knockdown of VEGFR2 by Lv-shVEGFR2 inhibited cell viability and induced apoptosis in primary HemECs companied with decreased expression of p-AKT, p-ERK, p-p38MAPK and Ki-67 and increased expression of caspase-3 (CAS-3). Overexpression of VEGFR2 promoted cell viability and blocked apoptosis in Lv-VEGFR2-transfected HemECs. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that, increased expression of VEGFR2 is involved in the development of primary HemECs possibly through regulation of the AKT and ERK pathways, suggesting that VEGFR2 may be a potential therapeutic target for HAs. 

IGF-1 receptor and IGF binding protein-3 might predict prognosis of patients with resectable pancreatic cancer

BACKGROUND

The present study aimed to elucidate the clinicopathologic role of insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF1R) and IGF binding protein-3 (IGFBP3) in patients with pancreatic cancer. The function of IGFBP3 is controversial, because both inhibition and facilitation of the action of IGF as well as IGF-independent effects have been reported. In this study, IGF1R and IGFBP3 expression was examined, and their potential roles as prognostic markers in patients with pancreatic cancer were evaluated.

METHODS

Clinicopathological features of 122 patients with curatively resected pancreatic cancer were retrospectively reviewed, and expression of IGF1R and IGFBP3 was immunohistochemically analyzed.

RESULTS

Expression of IGF1R and IGFBP3 was observed in 50 (41.0%) and 37 (30.3%) patients, respectively. IGF1R expression was significantly associated with histological grade (p = 0.037). IGFBP3 expression had a significant association with tumor location (p = 0.023), and a significant inverse association with venous invasion (p = 0.037). Tumors with IGF1R-positive and IGFBP3-negative expression (n = 32) were significantly frequently Stage II and III (p = 0.011). The prognosis for IGF1R positive patients was significantly poorer than that for IGF1R negative patients (p = 0.0181). IGFBP3 protein expression did not correlate significantly with patient survival. The subset of patients with both positive IGF1R and negative IGFBP3 had worse overall survival (8.8 months versus 12.6 months, respectively, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

IGF1R signaling might be associated with tumor aggressiveness, and IGFBP3 might show antiproliferative effects in pancreatic cancer. Both high IGF1R expression and low IGFBP3 expression represent useful prognostic markers for patients with curatively resected pancreatic cancer.

Rationale for the design of an oncology trial using a generic targeted therapy multi‑drug regimen for NSCLC patients without treatment options (Review)

Despite more than 70 years of research concerning medication for cancer treatment, the disease still remains one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Many cancer types lead to death within a period of months to years. The original class of chemotherapeutics is not selective for tumor cells and often has limited efficacy, while treated patients suffer from adverse side‑effects. To date, the concept of tumor‑specific targeted therapy drugs has not fulfilled its expectation to provide a key for a cure. Today, many oncology trials are designed using a combination of chemotherapeutics with targeted therapy drugs. However, these approaches have limited outcomes in most cancer indications. This perspective review provides a rationale to combine targeted therapy drugs for cancer treatment based on observations of evolutionary principles of tumor development and HIV infections. In both diseases, the mechanisms of immune evasion and drug resistance can be compared to some extent. However, only for HIV is a breakthrough treatment available, which is the highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). The principles of HAART and recent findings from cancer research were employed to construct a hypothetical model for cancer treatment with a multi‑drug regimen of targeted therapy drugs. As an example of this hypothesis, it is proposed to combine already marketed targeted therapy drugs against VEGFRs, EGFR, CXCR4 and COX2 in an oncology trial for non‑small cell lung cancer patients without further treatment options.

Up-regulation of platelet-derived growth factor-A is responsible for the failure of re-initiated interferon alpha treatment in hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Postoperative interferon-α(IFN-α) treatment delays hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC) recurrence and prolongs patient survival, and may thus be an effective form of adjuvant therapy. However, clinical observations found that HCC recurs in some patients within 8 months of IFN-α treatment being discontinued. We investigated whether HCC regrowth appears after IFN-α is discontinued, whether re-initiated IFN-α is effective, and the underlying mechanisms of IFN-α treatment.

METHODS

The human HCC nude mouse model LCI-D20 was used to study the effects of IFN-α treatment, discontinued IFN-α treatment, and re-initiated IFN-α treatment on tumor growth. Tumor weight, microvessel density(MVD), serum vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and tumor cell apoptosis were analyzed. Angiogenesis-related factors were studied using cDNA microarray in different tumor samples and confirmed using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction(RT-PCR) and Western blotting assays. Finally, imatinib was added with re-initiated IFN-α treatment to improve efficacy.

RESULTS

IFN-α (1.5 × 107 U/kg/day for 20 days) suppressed HCC growth by 60.3% and decreased MVD by 52.2% compared with the control. However, tumor regrowth occurred after IFN-α was discontinued, and re-initiated IFN-α treatment was not effective for inhibiting tumor growth or reducing MVD compared with a saline-treated group. cDNA microarray showed VEGF was down-regulated while platelet-derived growth factor-A (PDGF-A) was up-regulated when IFN-α treatment was re-initiated. These findings were further confirmed with RT-PCR and Western blotting assay. The combination of imatinib with re-initiated IFN-α reduced HCC weight by 30.7% and decreased MVD by 31.1% compared with IFN-α treatment only (P=0.003 and 0.015, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Tumor regrowth occurred after IFN-α treatment was discontinued. Re-initiated IFN-α treatment was not effective and was associated with up-regulation of PDGF-A, while the VEGF remained suppressed. The combination of a PDGF-receptor inhibitor with IFN-α improved the effect of the re-initiated treatment.